New Deal: Executive Order 7034 creates the Works Progress Administration.

Amidst the profound economic devastation of the Great Depression, a period marked by unprecedented unemployment and widespread poverty, the United States embarked on a monumental national effort known as the New Deal. This comprehensive series of federal programs, public work projects, financial reforms, and regulations was championed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt and enacted between 1933 and 1939. It represented a fundamental shift in the government's role in the economy and the welfare of its citizens, aiming to provide immediate relief, stimulate economic recovery, and implement lasting reforms to prevent future crises.

The New Deal introduced a variety of groundbreaking federal agencies and initiatives, many of which are still recognized today for their significant impact. Key programs included the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), which put young men to work on conservation projects; the Civil Works Administration (CWA), offering temporary jobs during the harsh winter of 1933-34; the Farm Security Administration (FSA), assisting struggling farmers; the National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933 (NIRA), an ambitious attempt to stabilize industry and labor; and the Social Security Administration (SSA), which established a foundational safety net for the elderly, unemployed, and disabled. These initiatives were designed to offer crucial support to diverse segments of the population, including struggling farmers, the millions of unemployed, American youth seeking opportunities, and the elderly facing destitution.

Beyond direct aid and employment, the New Deal also imposed stringent new constraints and safeguards on the nation's banking industry, seeking to restore public trust and prevent the kind of financial collapse that had triggered the Depression. Simultaneously, significant efforts were made to re-inflate the economy, which had suffered from a drastic fall in prices, leading to deflation and further economic contraction. The New Deal encompassed a blend of legislative acts passed by Congress and bold presidential executive orders, particularly during Roosevelt's pivotal first term.

The "3 R's": Relief, Recovery, and Reform

At its core, the New Deal was guided by what historians famously refer to as the "3 R's," providing a clear framework for its multifaceted objectives:

Political Realignment and Lasting Influence

The New Deal profoundly reshaped the American political landscape, leading to a significant political realignment. It solidified the Democratic Party as the dominant force in national politics, transforming it into the majority party. This era saw the Democrats hold the White House for an astonishing seven out of nine presidential terms from 1933 to 1969. The New Deal coalition, as it became known, drew its strength from a diverse base, including liberal-minded voters, the traditionally Democratic South, powerful big-city political machines, newly empowered labor unions, and various ethnic groups who felt a direct benefit from the New Deal programs. On the other side, the Republican Party found itself divided; conservative factions vehemently opposed the New Deal, viewing it as hostile to business and an impediment to economic growth, while a smaller liberal wing offered support. This coalition dominated presidential elections well into the 1960s, though an opposing conservative coalition exerted considerable control over Congress in domestic affairs from 1937 to 1964, illustrating the enduring ideological divisions sparked by the New Deal.

The Works Progress Administration (WPA): Building a Nation and Restoring Hope

A cornerstone of the "Second New Deal" launched in 1935, the Works Progress Administration (WPA), later renamed the Work Projects Administration in 1939, was a colossal American New Deal agency established by presidential order on May 6, 1935. Its primary mission was to combat the rampant unemployment of the Great Depression by providing paid jobs to millions of jobseekers, predominantly men who lacked formal education but possessed practical skills. The WPA embarked on an ambitious program of public works projects across the country, transforming the national infrastructure and offering a vital lifeline to desperate families.

Under the leadership of Harry Hopkins, a close advisor to President Roosevelt, the WPA's impact was immediate and substantial. Its first appropriation in 1935 amounted to an astounding $4.9 billion, a sum roughly equivalent to $15 per person in the U.S. at the time and representing approximately 6.7 percent of the entire 1935 Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The WPA supplied desperately needed paid employment while simultaneously bolstering the public infrastructure of the United States. Its projects spanned the construction of public buildings, schools, hospitals, parks, and, most notably, an immense network of roads. The sheer scale of its construction efforts was staggering: over 620,000 miles (1,000,000 km) of streets and more than 10,000 bridges were built, alongside numerous airports and significant housing developments. One of the largest and most ambitious undertakings indirectly supported by WPA efforts was the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), though TVA was an independent federal corporation.

Beyond Infrastructure: The WPA's Cultural Impact

At its zenith in 1938, the WPA provided paid employment for three million men and women. A separate division, the National Youth Administration (NYA), catered specifically to young people. Between its inception in 1935 and its dissolution in 1943, the WPA employed a remarkable 8.5 million individuals, a number comparable to half the population of a major city like New York at the time. While hourly wages were generally kept below standard industry rates to avoid competing with private sector jobs, the WPA's core objective was not "full employment" in the modern sense. Instead, its pragmatic goal was to provide at least one paid job for every family whose primary breadwinner faced long-term unemployment, offering dignity and sustenance rather than relying solely on direct handouts, or "the dole." As Robert D. Leininger noted, work relief was preferred because it "maintained self-respect, reinforced the work ethic, and kept skills sharp."

One of the WPA's most innovative and celebrated initiatives was Federal Project Number One. This groundbreaking program extended employment to artists, musicians, writers, actors, and directors, recognizing the profound importance of culture and the arts even in times of economic hardship. It comprised five distinct projects: the Federal Writers' Project (FWP), which documented American life and folklore; the Historical Records Survey (HRS), preserving invaluable historical documents and, notably, conducting interviews with many former slaves in the South, creating documents of immense importance to American history; the Federal Theatre Project (FTP), bringing live drama to communities nationwide; the Federal Music Project (FMP), which established orchestras and provided music education; and the Federal Art Project (FAP), commissioning public art. Through these projects, theater and music groups toured extensively, giving over 225,000 performances, while WPA-sponsored archaeological investigations proved instrumental in rediscovering pre-Columbian Native American cultures and fostering the development of professional archaeology in the U.S.

Administration and Liquidation

The WPA operated as a federal program, executing its projects in close collaboration with state and local governments, which typically contributed between 10% and 30% of the total costs. Local sponsors often provided the necessary land, trucks, and supplies, while the WPA covered wages and the salaries of supervisors. In some instances, the WPA absorbed existing state and local relief programs that had originated under the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) or the Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA), streamlining the national relief effort. The WPA officially concluded its operations and was liquidated on June 30, 1943. Its dissolution was a direct consequence of the drastic reduction in unemployment brought about by the United States' entry into World War II, as wartime industrial production created abundant job opportunities, rendering the WPA's mission largely complete.

Frequently Asked Questions About the New Deal and WPA

What were the primary goals of the New Deal?
The New Deal aimed for "3 R's": Relief for the unemployed and poor, Recovery of the economy to normal levels, and Reform of the financial system to prevent future depressions.
What were some of the most significant New Deal programs and agencies?
Major programs included the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), the Civil Works Administration (CWA), the Farm Security Administration (FSA), the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA), and the Social Security Administration (SSA).
What was the Works Progress Administration (WPA) and what did it do?
The WPA was a key New Deal agency established in 1935 that employed millions of jobseekers, mostly men, on public works projects such as constructing roads, bridges, public buildings, and parks. It also famously supported artists, writers, musicians, and actors through Federal Project Number One.
How many people did the WPA employ?
At its peak in 1938, the WPA employed three million people. Between 1935 and 1943, it provided jobs for approximately 8.5 million individuals across the country.
What kinds of projects did the WPA undertake?
WPA projects were diverse, encompassing the construction of over 620,000 miles of streets, 10,000 bridges, numerous airports, and public buildings. Culturally, it funded projects like the Federal Writers' Project, which documented local histories, and the Federal Art Project, which created public art.
How did the New Deal change American politics?
The New Deal led to a major political realignment, establishing the Democratic Party as the majority party through the "New Deal coalition" of various liberal, labor, and ethnic groups. It shaped American political discourse and party allegiances for decades.
Why was the WPA eventually disbanded?
The WPA was liquidated on June 30, 1943, primarily due to the dramatic decrease in unemployment caused by the United States' entry into World War II. The massive industrial production required for the war effort created abundant jobs, making the WPA's work relief mission largely obsolete.