Births on February 12

Cotton Mather, English-American minister and author (d. 1728)

Cotton Mather (February 12, 1663 – February 13, 1728) stands as one of the most prominent and complex figures in English-speaking colonial America. A prolific New England Puritan clergyman, author, and intellectual, Mather's life spanned a period of significant transition for the American colonies, witnessing both the apex and the gradual decline of strict Puritan influence. His extensive writings, diverse interests in science, and involvement in critical political and social events of his era have left an indelible, though often controversial, mark on early American history.

Early Life, Ministry, and Education at Harvard

Born into an influential Puritan dynasty, Cotton Mather received his education at the esteemed Harvard College, then the premier educational institution in colonial America, designed to train future ministers. Demonstrating exceptional intellectual prowess, he graduated at the tender age of 15 in 1678. Following in the footsteps of his equally distinguished father, Increase Mather, Cotton was ordained in 1685. He joined his father as a minister of the influential Congregationalist North Church of Boston (often referred to as the Old North Church in historical accounts, though not the same as the present-day Old North Church of Paul Revere fame), where he continued to preach and serve the community for the remainder of his life. This shared ministry underscored the deeply embedded dynastic nature of religious leadership in Puritan New England.

Political Influence and the 1689 Revolt

Beyond his clerical duties, Cotton Mather was a significant public figure who wielded considerable political influence. In 1689, he played a pivotal role in leading a successful revolt against Sir Edmund Andros, the royally appointed governor of the Dominion of New England. King James II had imposed Andros to consolidate royal authority over the New England colonies, stripping them of their self-governance and traditional charters. Andros's autocratic rule and his challenge to Puritan religious practices fueled widespread resentment. Mather, capitalizing on news of England's Glorious Revolution, helped organize the uprising, famously drafting the "Declaration of the Gentlemen, Merchants, and Inhabitants of Boston, and the Country Adjacent," which justified the revolt and led to Andros's arrest and the collapse of the Dominion. This event showcased Mather's ability to mobilize public sentiment and his commitment to the traditional liberties of New England colonists.

The Salem Witch Trials and Lingering Controversy

Perhaps the most controversial chapter in Cotton Mather's life was his involvement in the Salem witch trials of 1692–1693. While he was not a judge in the trials, Mather served as an influential advisor to the court and was deeply immersed in the prevailing beliefs regarding witchcraft, which were then widely accepted across Europe and the colonies. In 1693, he published *Wonders of the Invisible World*, a work intended to defend the trials and the magistrates' actions. However, his stance was complex; while affirming his belief in the reality of witchcraft and the necessity of prosecuting it, he also expressed caution against reliance on "spectral evidence" (testimony based on visions of the accused's spirit tormenting the victim), urging for more tangible proofs. Despite this nuance, his defense of the proceedings attracted intense criticism in his own time and has since negatively affected his historical reputation, often overshadowing his other significant contributions.

A Prolific Author and Historian: Magnalia Christi Americana

As a prolific writer, Mather penned over 400 published works, ranging from sermons and theological treatises to scientific observations and biographies. Among his most ambitious and enduring literary achievements is *Magnalia Christi Americana* (1702). This monumental ecclesiastical history of New England, often translated as "The Great Works of Christ in America," documented the founding and development of the Puritan colonies, celebrating the lives of its spiritual and political leaders. It served as a comprehensive narrative designed to preserve the Puritan legacy, highlighting God's providential hand in the establishment of a "city upon a hill" in the New World. While sometimes criticized for its hagiographic style and historical inaccuracies, *Magnalia Christi Americana* remains an invaluable primary source for understanding early American colonial history and the Puritan mindset.

Navigating Shifting Political and Religious Landscapes

Despite his significant intellectual and public standing, Cotton Mather experienced a decline in his political and institutional influence in the later part of his life. Committed to the "waning old social and religious orders" of traditional Puritanism, he struggled to adapt to the rising tide of Enlightenment thought and increasing secularization in New England. He unsuccessfully sought the coveted presidency of Harvard College, an office previously held by his father, Increase Mather, a strong indicator of the family's diminishing sway over the evolving institution. After 1702, Mather also found himself in opposition to Joseph Dudley, the newly appointed royal governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay, whom Mather unsuccessfully attempted to remove from power. In this shifting landscape, Mather championed the newly founded Yale College (established in 1701), viewing it as a more conservative "intellectual bulwark of Puritanism" compared to the increasingly liberal Harvard.

International Connections and Scientific Endeavors

Mather was far from an insular colonial figure. He actively corresponded with a wide network of European intellectuals, including prominent figures like Richard Baxter, demonstrating his engagement with broader transatlantic intellectual currents. His international stature was formally recognized in 1710 when he received an honorary Doctor of Divinity degree from the prestigious University of Glasgow in Scotland.

Beyond theology and history, Mather was a keen advocate and practitioner of the "new experimental science" in America, a testament to his multifaceted intellect. He engaged in original scientific research, including observations on plant hybridization and the efficacy of inoculation against smallpox contagion. Mather regularly dispatched detailed reports on various scientific matters, including observations on natural phenomena and medical practices, to the Royal Society of London, then the world's leading scientific organization. In recognition of his contributions to the advancement of natural knowledge, he was elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1713, a remarkable achievement for a colonial American at the time.

The Smallpox Inoculation Controversy of 1721

Cotton Mather's most daring and impactful scientific initiative was his fervent promotion of smallpox inoculation. In 1716, he learned about the practice from Onesimus, an African man enslaved by Mather, who described the traditional African method of deliberately infecting oneself with a mild form of the disease to gain immunity. During the devastating smallpox outbreak in Boston in 1721, Mather, in collaboration with Dr. Zabdiel Boylston, courageously championed and oversaw the first widespread use of inoculation in America. This medical innovation, however, provoked violent controversy. Opponents, including many physicians and ordinary citizens, viewed it with suspicion, deeming it dangerous, irreligious, or even a form of poisoning. The public debate, fueled by figures like James Franklin (Benjamin Franklin's brother), was intense, involving pamphlets, sermons, and even an attempt on Mather's life. Despite the opposition, the data collected by Mather and Boylston demonstrated a significantly lower mortality rate among inoculated individuals, laying crucial groundwork for future public health initiatives.

Lasting Legacy and Influence on Benjamin Franklin

Cotton Mather's influence extended beyond his lifetime, albeit sometimes indirectly. The celebrated American scientist and US Founding Father, Benjamin Franklin, who as a young Bostonian had vociferously opposed the traditional Puritan order represented by Mather and even participated in the anti-inoculation campaign, later acknowledged a profound debt to Mather. Franklin specifically cited Mather's book *Bonifacius, or Essays to Do Good* (1710) as a major influence on his own life and philosophy. *Bonifacius* advocated for practical piety, civic virtue, and the active pursuit of good works, themes that deeply resonated with Franklin's own commitment to public service and self-improvement, illustrating the complex and sometimes ironic nature of historical influence.

Frequently Asked Questions About Cotton Mather

Who was Cotton Mather?

Cotton Mather was a prominent New England Puritan clergyman, a prolific writer, and a leading intellectual figure in colonial America during the late 17th and early 18th centuries. He played significant roles in politics, religion, and early American science.

What was Cotton Mather's role in the Salem Witch Trials?

Mather served as an influential advisor to the court during the Salem witch trials of 1692-1693. While he believed in witchcraft and defended the trials in his book *Wonders of the Invisible World*, he also cautioned against the excessive use of "spectral evidence," advocating for more concrete proof.

What is *Magnalia Christi Americana*?

*Magnalia Christi Americana* (1702) is Cotton Mather's monumental ecclesiastical history of New England. It's a comprehensive work chronicling the Puritan colonies' founding, development, and the lives of its key religious and political figures, serving as a crucial primary source for early American history.

Why was Cotton Mather controversial regarding smallpox inoculation?

Mather spearheaded the first widespread smallpox inoculation campaign in America during the 1721 Boston outbreak, a practice he learned about from an enslaved African man named Onesimus. This initiative was highly controversial due to public fear, religious objections, and a lack of understanding of its medical basis, leading to widespread public opposition and even threats against Mather.

What was Cotton Mather's connection to Benjamin Franklin?

Although Benjamin Franklin, in his youth, opposed the Puritan order represented by Mather, he later credited Mather's book *Bonifacius, or Essays to Do Good* (1710) as a major influence on his personal philosophy and commitment to civic virtue and public service.

What scientific contributions did Cotton Mather make?

Mather was a keen advocate for experimental science. He conducted original research on plant hybridization and notably promoted smallpox inoculation. He was also a Fellow of the Royal Society of London, to which he regularly submitted scientific reports from the American colonies.