In Kabul, Setami Milli militants kidnap the American ambassador to Afghanistan, Adolph Dubs who is later killed during a gunfight between his kidnappers and police.

Kabul: Afghanistan's Enduring Capital and Cultural Nexus

Kabul, officially known by its Pashto designation as Kābəl ([kɑˈbəl]) and in Persian as Kābol ([kɒːˈbol]), stands as the venerable capital and most populous city of Afghanistan. Strategically positioned in the eastern part of the nation, Kabul functions not merely as a city but as a vital municipality, forming an integral part of the larger Kabul Province. This expansive urban area is meticulously organized into 22 distinct districts, each contributing to the city's complex tapestry.

As of 2021 estimates, Kabul was home to approximately 4.6 million residents, solidifying its role as the undisputed political, cultural, and economic heart of Afghanistan. Its remarkable and rapid urban development has propelled it to become the world's 75th largest city, a testament to its continuous growth and enduring significance despite historical challenges.

A City of Ancient Roots and Strategic Significance

Kabul's geographical placement is as compelling as its history. It is dramatically situated at a high altitude within a narrow valley, cradled between the formidable peaks of the Hindu Kush mountain range and bisected by the historic Kabul River. With an elevation of 1,790 metres (5,873 ft) above sea level, Kabul ranks among the highest capital cities globally, offering breathtaking vistas and a distinct climate influenced by its mountainous surroundings.

The city's antiquity is profound, with its origins stretching back over 3,500 years. Historical records and archaeological findings confirm its existence since at least the era of the Achaemenid Empire (circa 6th to 4th centuries BCE), underscoring its long-standing importance. Its location is a true crossroads of Asia, metaphorically positioned roughly halfway between the bustling metropolis of Istanbul in the west and the vibrant city of Hanoi in the east. This pivotal position placed Kabul at a crucial nexus along ancient trade routes that connected South and Central Asia, establishing it as a key node on the legendary Silk Road. Such was its strategic and commercial importance that it was often likened to a grand meeting place where the cultures and goods of Tartary (Central Asia), India, and Persia converged and exchanged.

Throughout its extensive history, Kabul has experienced the ebb and flow of numerous powerful dynasties and empires, each leaving an indelible mark on its cultural and architectural landscape. These included, but were not limited to:

In the 16th century, Kabul briefly flourished as an initial summer capital of the mighty Mughal Empire under figures like Babur, who admired its climate and gardens. This period saw increased prosperity and strategic significance for the city within the burgeoning empire. Following Nader Shah's invasion of India, it temporarily fell under Persian Afsharid control. However, its modern identity was firmly established when it became an integral part of the Afghan Durrani Empire in 1747, a state often considered the precursor to modern Afghanistan. In a pivotal moment in Afghan history, Kabul officially became the capital of Afghanistan in 1776, a decision made during the reign of Timur Shah Durrani, the son of the empire's founder, Ahmad Shah Durrani. The 19th century witnessed the British occupation of the city during the Anglo-Afghan Wars, a period that ultimately led to the establishment of foreign relations and the eventual withdrawal of British forces from Afghanistan, underscoring the fierce independence of the Afghan people.

From 'Paris of Central Asia' to Years of Conflict

Culturally, Kabul has long been celebrated for its exquisite historical gardens, bustling bazaars, and magnificent palaces. Renowned examples include the serene Gardens of Babur, a UNESCO World Heritage site known for its meticulous landscaping and historical significance, and the grand Darul Aman Palace, an architectural marvel showcasing European influences. In the latter half of the 20th century, Kabul experienced a period of relative peace and openness, earning it the affectionate nickname "Paris of Central Asia." During this golden era, it became a popular and essential stop on the legendary "hippie trail," attracting tourists and adventurers from around the world who were captivated by its vibrant culture, ancient history, and welcoming atmosphere.

However, this era of tranquility came to an abrupt and tragic end. In 1979, the city was occupied by Soviet forces, marking the beginning of decades of conflict that would profoundly transform Afghanistan. The subsequent civil war in the 1990s, fought between various rebel factions and warlords, led to widespread destruction, severely damaging much of Kabul's infrastructure and cultural heritage. From 2001, following the events of 9/11, the city came under the occupation of a multinational coalition of forces, primarily led by NATO. This international presence aimed to stabilize the country and rebuild its institutions. This period concluded dramatically in August 2021 when, amidst the withdrawal of international forces, Kabul was swiftly seized by the Taliban's forces, once again ushering in a new chapter for the resilient city.

Frequently Asked Questions About Kabul

What makes Kabul a strategically important city?
Kabul's strategic importance stems from its ancient location at the crossroads of major trade routes between South and Central Asia, including the historic Silk Road. Its mountainous terrain provides natural defenses, while its position facilitates control over key regional passages. Throughout history, it has been a critical hub for commerce, culture, and military operations.
What are some significant historical landmarks in Kabul?
Key historical landmarks include the Gardens of Babur (Bagh-e Babur), the final resting place of the Mughal Emperor Babur; the Darul Aman Palace, an early 20th-century architectural masterpiece; and the remains of the ancient city walls, which attest to Kabul's long and often tumultuous history. The Kabul Museum also houses a vast collection of artifacts reflecting Afghanistan's rich cultural heritage.
Why was Kabul known as the "Paris of Central Asia"?
Kabul earned this nickname in the mid to late 20th century due to its cosmopolitan atmosphere, vibrant cultural scene, educational institutions, and its role as a popular destination on the "hippie trail." During this period, the city enjoyed relative peace and an influx of international visitors, fostering a liberal and open environment reminiscent of European cultural centers.

Settam-e-Melli: A Complex Political Movement in Afghanistan

Settam-e-Melli (Dari Persian for "National Oppression"), variously romanized as Setam-i-Milli, Setami Milli, Setam-i-Meli, Setami-i-Milli, and Setame Melli, was a significant, albeit often enigmatic, political movement that emerged in Afghanistan. This organization, led by the charismatic Tahir Badakhshi, positioned itself within the broader context of the Non-Aligned Movement, advocating for a path independent of the major Cold War blocs. Intriguingly, it found itself in opposition to both the established Afghan monarchy, which it sought to challenge, and the Soviet-aligned People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA), reflecting its distinct ideological stance.

Origins and Ideological Stance

The adherents of Settam-e-Melli were predominantly Persian speakers, and a large majority of its membership comprised non-Pashtun ethnic minorities within Afghanistan, notably Tajiks, Uzbeks, and other smaller groups. Due to its ethnic composition and political objectives, the movement has been described in various ways: as an anti-Pashtun separatist group, emphasizing its opposition to Pashtun dominance in Afghan politics, and more specifically as a Tajik and Uzbek separatist group, advocating for the interests and potentially greater autonomy for these communities.

Information surrounding Settam-e-Melli remains somewhat obscure and at times contradictory, contributing to its enigmatic nature. However, it is generally understood to have been an "anti-Pashtun leftist mutation," suggesting a blend of ethnic grievance with socialist or leftist ideology. The group was formally founded in 1968 by Tahir Badakhshi, an ethnic Tajik who had previously been a prominent member of the Central Committee of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan. His subsequent split from the PDPA, driven by ideological differences and possibly concerns over Pashtun dominance within the party, marked the birth of Settam-e-Melli. The movement's core tenets emphasized "militant class struggle and mass mobilization of peasants," aiming to galvanize the rural and often marginalized populations. It actively recruited its members from among Tajiks, Uzbeks, and other minority groups residing in Kabul and the northeastern provinces of Afghanistan, areas with significant non-Pashtun populations.

Controversies and Shifting Alliances

A significant controversy surrounding Settam-e-Melli involves its alleged responsibility for the kidnapping and murder of the American ambassador to Afghanistan, Adolph Dubs, on February 14, 1979, at the Kabul Hotel. While this accusation is sometimes attributed to Settam-e-Melli, the true identity, motives, and affiliations of the militants who abducted Ambassador Dubs remain highly uncertain. The circumstances surrounding the event are still "clouded," lacking definitive evidence. Indeed, some analysts consider the allegation against Settam-e-Melli to be "dubious," pointing to alternative claims, such as that made by a former Kabul policeman who asserted that at least one of the kidnappers was associated with the Parcham faction of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan, further complicating the historical narrative.

During the tumultuous Taraki-Amin period (1978-1979) of communist rule in Afghanistan, the Setamis, as followers of the movement were known, largely withdrew to the Afghan countryside. This strategic retreat, however, effectively removed them from their primary urban power base in Kabul, impacting their organizational capacity. A significant shift in their political fortunes occurred during the 1979-1986 rule of the communist president Babrak Karmal. During this period, the Setamis developed closer ties with the government, partly due to the personal friendship between Karmal and Tahir Badakhshi, who, tragically, had been killed in 1979. This newfound rapprochement led to some Setami leaders integrating into the communist regime. For instance, Bashir Baghlani, a prominent Setami leader, defected to the government in 1983 and was subsequently appointed Minister of Justice, signifying a pragmatic alliance. Despite these internal shifts and alliances, the Setamis continued to play a prominent role among the non-Pashtun militias in northeastern Afghanistan, notably participating in the defeat of the renowned mujahideen commander Ahmad Shah Massoud at Shahr-i Bozorg in 1990, underscoring their enduring influence in regional conflicts.

Frequently Asked Questions About Settam-e-Melli

What was the primary ideological orientation of Settam-e-Melli?
Settam-e-Melli was a political movement with a complex ideology, described as an "anti-Pashtun leftist mutation." It emphasized "militant class struggle and mass mobilization of peasants" and sought to represent non-Pashtun ethnic minorities like Tajiks and Uzbeks, often advocating for their interests against perceived Pashtun dominance in Afghanistan.
Who founded Settam-e-Melli and what was his background?
Settam-e-Melli was founded in 1968 by Tahir Badakhshi. He was an ethnic Tajik who had previously been a member of the Central Committee of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) but later split from the party, likely due to ideological differences and concerns regarding ethnic representation within the communist movement.
Why is there controversy surrounding Settam-e-Melli's involvement in the Adolph Dubs kidnapping?
The attribution of responsibility for the 1979 kidnapping and murder of Ambassador Adolph Dubs to Settam-e-Melli is controversial because the true identity and motives of the militants involved remain uncertain and "clouded." Some sources consider the allegation "dubious," suggesting alternative culprits, such as elements within the Parcham faction of the PDPA, indicating a lack of definitive evidence linking Settam-e-Melli directly to the incident.