Events on February 15 in history

Byzantine emperor Justinian II has his predecessors Leontios and Tiberios III publicly executed in the Hippodrome of Constantinople.

The Enduring Legacy of the Byzantine Empire: A Millennium of Roman Continuity

The Byzantine Empire, often recognized as the Eastern Roman Empire or simply Byzantium, represented the direct continuation of the ancient Roman Empire within its eastern provinces. Flourishing through Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, its heart and administrative center was the magnificent city of Constantinople. While the Western Roman Empire underwent fragmentation and ultimately collapsed in 476 AD, the Byzantine Empire remarkably persevered, maintaining its sophisticated structures and imperial traditions for over a thousand years until the dramatic fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453. For much of its extensive history, this powerful entity remained the preeminent economic, cultural, and military force across Europe and the Mediterranean.

Defining Byzantium: Identity and Nomenclature

It is important to note that the names "Byzantine Empire" and "Eastern Roman Empire" were historical designations coined by scholars long after the empire ceased to exist. Its citizens, steeped in their Roman heritage, consistently referred to their realm as simply the Roman Empire (in Medieval Greek: Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων, romanized: Basileía Rhōmaíōn) or Romania (Medieval Greek: Ῥωμανία). They proudly identified themselves as Romans (Medieval Greek: Ῥωμαῖοι, romanized: Rhōmaîoi) – a self-identification that Greeks continued to use for centuries, even into the period of Ottoman rule. Although the Byzantine state explicitly continued Roman administrative, legal, and imperial traditions, modern historians distinguish it from its earlier Roman incarnation primarily due to several key shifts. Byzantium became fundamentally centered on Constantinople, adopted a predominantly Greek cultural orientation in contrast to Latin, and was profoundly shaped by Eastern Orthodox Christianity.

Key Turning Points and Imperial Transformations

The gradual divergence of the Roman Empire's Greek East and Latin West was marked by several pivotal events spanning the 4th to 6th centuries:

• Constantine I (r. 324–337): Emperor Constantine the Great initiated a profound reorganization of the empire, most notably establishing a new imperial capital at Byzantium, which he renamed Constantinople (Nova Roma, or "New Rome"). His reign also saw the legalization of Christianity, laying the groundwork for its future dominance, though not yet making it the exclusive state religion.
• Theodosius I (r. 379–395): Under Theodosius I, Christianity was formally declared the state religion of the Roman Empire, leading to the proscription and gradual suppression of other religious practices, including paganism. This solidified the Christian character of the East.
• Heraclius (r. 610–641): The reign of Emperor Heraclius brought about significant military and administrative reforms. Crucially, Greek was officially adopted as the language of administration and military command, replacing Latin. This transition marked a definitive cultural shift and further solidified the Hellenic identity of the Eastern Roman state, alongside the introduction of the effective 'theme system' of military districts.

Cycles of Expansion, Decline, and Recovery

The borders of the Byzantine Empire were never static, fluctuating dramatically through numerous periods of military success and devastating losses:

• Justinian I (r. 527–565): Under the ambitious Emperor Justinian I, the empire achieved its greatest territorial extent. Through the campaigns of his brilliant generals, Belisarius and Narses, much of the historically Roman western Mediterranean coast was reconquered, including North Africa, Italy (with Rome itself), and parts of Hispania. These territories, however, proved difficult to hold long-term, many remaining under Byzantine control for only two more centuries. Justinian's reign is also remembered for the codification of Roman law into the Corpus Juris Civilis, a legal masterpiece that would influence European law for centuries.
• Early 7th Century Cataclysms: The protracted and exhausting Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 severely depleted the empire's resources. This weakness was swiftly exploited during the subsequent Early Muslim conquests in the 7th century, which saw Byzantium lose its wealthiest provinces – Egypt and Syria – to the Rashidun Caliphate. The strategic port cities and rich agricultural lands of these regions were a massive blow to the imperial treasury and manpower. By 698, Africa, another vital province, was lost to the Umayyad Caliphate.
• Macedonian Dynasty (10th–11th centuries): A period of resurgence occurred under the Macedonian dynasty, during which the empire expanded significantly once more. This era, often termed the Macedonian Renaissance, witnessed a flourishing of art, literature, and scholarship for two centuries, reaffirming Byzantium's cultural leadership. However, this golden age tragically concluded with the catastrophic defeat by the Seljuk Turks at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071. This pivotal loss opened up most of Asia Minor, the empire's traditional heartland and primary source of soldiers and food, to Turkish settlement, triggering widespread civil wars and further Seljuk incursions.
• Komnenian Restoration: Despite severe setbacks, the empire experienced a significant recovery during the Komnenian restoration (late 11th-12th centuries). Through shrewd diplomacy and military reforms, emperors like Alexios I Komnenos stabilized the empire, leading to renewed prosperity. By the 12th century, Constantinople had once again become the largest and wealthiest city in Europe, a vibrant hub of trade and culture.
• The Fourth Crusade (1204): A mortal blow was dealt to the empire during the Fourth Crusade. Instead of proceeding to the Holy Land, the crusaders, primarily Latin Christians, diverted their forces to Constantinople, sacking the city in 1204 with unprecedented brutality. The empire's territories were subsequently partitioned into a mosaic of competing Byzantine Greek successor states and Latin realms, profoundly weakening the imperial structure forever.
• Final Centuries: Although Constantinople was eventually recovered by the Byzantines in 1261, the restored empire remained a shadow of its former self, merely one of several small, rival states in the region. Its remaining territories were progressively annexed by the rising Ottoman Empire throughout the Byzantine–Ottoman wars of the 14th and 15th centuries.

The End of an Empire and its Lasting Impact

The definitive end of the Byzantine Empire came with the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire on May 29, 1453, under the leadership of Sultan Mehmed II. This event sent shockwaves across Europe. Many Byzantine scholars and artists, fleeing the captured city, settled in Italy and other parts of Western Europe, bringing with them invaluable Greek texts and knowledge. This influx of classical learning is widely credited with helping to ignite the intellectual and artistic fervor of the Renaissance in the West. The empire's successor states were also gradually absorbed: the Empire of Trebizond fell eight years later in 1461, and the last, the Principality of Theodoro, was conquered by the Ottomans in 1475, truly marking the final chapter of Byzantine continuity.

When did the Byzantine Empire officially end?

The Byzantine Empire officially ended with the fall of its capital, Constantinople, to the Ottoman Empire on May 29, 1453.

Why is the Byzantine Empire considered a continuation of the Roman Empire?

It maintained Roman legal traditions, administrative structures, imperial titles, and viewed itself as the direct successor state. Its citizens identified as "Romans."

What was the significance of the Fourth Crusade for Byzantium?

The Fourth Crusade, which sacked Constantinople in 1204, was a catastrophic event that irrevocably weakened the empire, fragmented its territories, and led to its long-term decline.

Emperor Justinian II: Ambition, Despotism, and a Mutilated Return

Justinian II (Latin: Iustinianus; Greek: Ἰουστινιανός, romanized: Ioustinianos; c. 668/9 – 4 November 711), famously surnamed Rhinotmetos or Rhinotmetus (Ῥινότημετος, meaning "the slit-nosed"), holds a unique and dramatic place in Byzantine history as the last Eastern Roman emperor of the Heraclian dynasty. His reign was marked by two distinct periods: from 685 to 695 and again from 705 to 711.

A Ruler of Unyielding Ambition and Brutality

Much like his illustrious predecessor, Justinian I, Justinian II was a profoundly ambitious and passionate ruler. He harbored a fervent desire to restore the Roman Empire to its former glories, attempting to reassert imperial authority across various domains, including over the Papacy and in military campaigns against the Arabs and Bulgars. However, unlike his father, Constantine IV, Justinian II notably lacked political finesse and responded with extreme brutality to any opposition to his will. His methods often included harsh taxation, forced population transfers, and severe repression of dissenting officials or groups.

First Reign and Deposition (685-695)

Consequently, Justinian II generated immense opposition throughout his first reign. This widespread discontent culminated in his deposition in 695 during a popular uprising led by Leontios. As a traditional Byzantine practice to render a deposed emperor ineligible to rule again, Justinian II suffered the cruel mutilation of his nose – a disfigurement that earned him the epithet "Rhinotmetos." He was then exiled to Cherson in Crimea.

Second Reign: A Despotic Comeback (705-711)

In an extraordinary display of perseverance and ambition, Justinian II dramatically returned to the throne in 705. He achieved this unprecedented feat with the crucial assistance of a Bulgar and Slav army, forged through an alliance with Tervel of Bulgaria. His second reign, however, proved even more despotic and vengeful than the first. He notoriously pursued harsh reprisals against those who had conspired against him, executing or torturing many of his former adversaries and their families. This renewed tyranny once again fueled widespread resentment.

Final Overthrow and Assassination

Justinian II's relentless cruelty and increasingly unstable rule ultimately led to his second and final overthrow in 711. He was abandoned by his own army, who turned against him and subsequently orchestrated his assassination, bringing an end to the Heraclian dynasty and a tumultuous chapter in Byzantine history.

Who was Justinian II Rhinotmetos?

Justinian II was an Eastern Roman emperor of the Heraclian dynasty, known for his ambition, brutality, and two separate reigns, the latter occurring after he returned from exile following a nose mutilation.

Why was Justinian II called "Rhinotmetos"?

He was surnamed "Rhinotmetos," meaning "the slit-nosed," because his nose was surgically removed (mutilated) during his first deposition in 695, a common Byzantine practice to disqualify an individual from imperial rule.