The Council of Basel suspends Pope Eugene IV.

The Council of Florence: A Pivotal Chapter in Ecclesiastical History

The Council of Florence, a momentous convocation recognized as the seventeenth ecumenical council by the Catholic Church, was held over an extended period from 1431 to 1449. This significant assembly unfolded against a tumultuous backdrop, marked by the ongoing Hussite Wars in Bohemia and the escalating threat posed by the burgeoning Ottoman Empire to Christian Europe. Initially convoked as the Council of Basel by Pope Martin V just before his demise in February 1431, its primary objective was to address critical issues within the Church and seek unity in a divided Christendom.

The Battle for Authority: Conciliarism vs. Papal Supremacy

At the very heart of the Council of Florence, and indeed the broader ecclesiastical landscape of the 15th century, lay a fundamental ideological struggle: the heated debate between the conciliar movement and the principle of papal supremacy. The conciliar movement advocated that supreme authority in the Church resided not solely with the Pope, but with a general council of bishops, representing the entire Christian community. Proponents believed councils possessed the power to reform the Church and even to depose a pope if necessary. Conversely, the principle of papal supremacy asserted the Pope's absolute and divinely ordained authority as the Vicar of Christ on Earth, holding ultimate jurisdiction over all matters of faith and discipline.

This inherent tension defined much of the Council's early proceedings and ultimately led to a profound schism within the Western Church itself.

From Basel to Ferrara, Then Florence: A Council on the Move

The Council entered a critical second phase following the death of Emperor Sigismund in 1437. Sigismund, the Holy Roman Emperor, had been a crucial figure in supporting the Council of Basel and mediating between its various factions. His passing removed a significant stabilizing presence.

Capitalizing on this shift, Pope Eugene IV, a staunch advocate for papal authority, made a decisive move. On January 8, 1438, he convoked a rival assembly, the Council of Ferrara, with a strategic aim: to draw away participants from Basel, particularly the influential Byzantine ambassadors. These Eastern representatives were vital for the Pope's ambitions of reuniting the Eastern and Western Churches, a goal that would significantly bolster papal prestige.

The remaining members of the Council of Basel reacted fiercely to Eugene IV's actions. They retaliated by first suspending him from his pontifical office, then declaring him a heretic, and finally, in November 1439, electing an antipope, Amadeus VIII of Savoy, who took the name Felix V. This dramatic turn of events plunged the Western Church into a renewed, albeit short-lived, period of schism.

The Council of Ferrara, however, soon faced an unforeseen challenge: an outbreak of the bubonic plague. To ensure the safety of its participants and the continuity of its vital negotiations, Pope Eugene IV relocated the council once more, this time to Florence in 1439. It was at this juncture that the assembly became formally known as the Council of Florence.

The Quest for Union: Bridging the Great Schism

The Council of Florence achieved a remarkable, though ultimately fleeting, diplomatic triumph by negotiating unions with various Eastern Christian Churches. These included agreements with the Greek Orthodox Church (represented by Patriarch Joseph II of Constantinople and Emperor John VIII Palaiologos), as well as the Armenian, Coptic, Syrian, and Maronite Churches. The most prominent achievement was the Decree of Union with the Greeks, known as "Laetentur Caeli" (Let the Heavens Rejoice), signed on July 6, 1439. This decree proclaimed doctrinal unity on key contentious points such as the Filioque clause (the procession of the Holy Spirit from both the Father and the Son), papal primacy, purgatory, and the use of unleavened bread in the Eucharist.

While this "bridging" of the Great Schism – the centuries-old division between the Western (Catholic) and Eastern (Orthodox) Churches – represented a significant political coup for the papacy, enhancing its image and power, its practical impact proved largely ephemeral. The agreements, often brokered under duress or perceived as politically motivated by the Eastern Empire's desperate need for Western military aid against the Ottomans, were largely rejected by the clergy and faithful of the Eastern Churches upon the delegates' return. Despite its ultimate failure to achieve lasting union, the Council of Florence solidified papal authority and significantly weakened the conciliar movement.

The Council of Florence officially concluded its main work in 1445. Meanwhile, in 1447, Sigismund's successor, Emperor Frederick III, who had largely sided with Eugene IV and the papal cause, commanded the city of Basel to expel the remaining members of the dissident Council. This "rump Council" reconvened briefly in Lausanne before finally dissolving itself in 1449, effectively marking the definitive end of the conciliar movement's challenge to papal supremacy.

Key Takeaways from the Council of Florence:

Frequently Asked Questions about the Council of Florence:

What was the primary purpose of the Council of Florence?
The Council of Florence aimed to reunite the Western and Eastern Christian Churches, strengthen the authority of the papacy, and address internal reforms within the Catholic Church, particularly against the backdrop of the conciliar movement.
Why did the Council move from Basel to Ferrara and then to Florence?
The Council moved from Basel to Ferrara due to a schism between Pope Eugene IV and the Basel assembly, with Eugene IV seeking a new venue to assert his authority and facilitate negotiations with the Byzantines. It then moved from Ferrara to Florence to escape an outbreak of the plague.
What was the significance of the union decrees signed at Florence?
The union decrees, particularly "Laetentur Caeli" with the Greek Orthodox Church, were a diplomatic victory for the papacy, demonstrating its capacity for negotiation and theological reconciliation. Although largely rejected in the East, they affirmed papal primacy and laid groundwork for future ecumenical dialogue.

Pope Eugene IV: A Profile in Papal Resilience

Pope Eugene IV, born Gabriele Condulmer in Venice in 1383, served as the head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from March 3, 1431, until his death on February 23, 1447. A nephew of Pope Gregory XII – a pontiff who himself played a role in ending the earlier Western Schism – Condulmer was an Augustinian canon before his rapid ascent through the Church hierarchy. He became a cardinal under his uncle and was subsequently elected pope in 1431, inheriting a Church still grappling with the aftermath of internal divisions.

A Pontificate of Conflict and Assertion

Eugene IV's papacy was largely defined by profound conflicts. His initial challenges came from within Rome, specifically from the powerful Colonna family, relatives of his predecessor, Pope Martin V. These secular power struggles over control of Rome and the Papal States underscored the complex political landscape of the era, where the Pope was not only a spiritual leader but also a temporal ruler.

Far more significant and enduring, however, was his struggle against the conciliar movement. From the outset, Eugene IV was determined to reassert the supreme authority of the papacy, a principle that had been seriously challenged by the councils of Constance and Basel. His decision to move the Council from Basel to Ferrara, and then to Florence, was a calculated strategy to undermine the conciliarists and re-establish papal control over general councils.

Papal Bulls and Ethical Stances: Creator Omnium and Slavery

Beyond the internal Church conflicts, Pope Eugene IV's pontificate also touched upon the nascent Age of Exploration and its moral implications. In 1434, responding to a complaint from Fernando Calvetos, the Bishop of the Canary Islands, Eugene IV issued the significant papal bull "Creator Omnium." This bull rescinded any prior recognition of Portugal's claimed right to conquer and enslave the indigenous inhabitants of the Canary Islands, who were at that time still largely pagan. This directive underscored an early, albeit inconsistent, papal stance on the rights of non-Christian peoples encountered during European expansion.

Further demonstrating his ethical concerns, Eugene IV unequivocally declared the excommunication of anyone who enslaved newly converted Christians. The penalty for such actions was severe: it was to stand until the captives were restored to their liberty and possessions. This strong condemnation reflected a developing theological and moral framework within the Church regarding the treatment of converts and the burgeoning transatlantic slave trade, even if its enforcement proved challenging in practice.

By 1443, as territorial disputes between Portugal and Castile intensified over newly claimed rights along the coast of Africa, Pope Eugene IV adopted a neutral position. This cautious approach reflected the complex geopolitical dynamics of the period and the papacy's evolving role in mediating conflicts among rising European powers.

Pope Eugene IV holds a unique place in papal history as the last pontiff to date to assume the pontifical name "Eugene." His tenure, though turbulent, was pivotal in shaping the role of the papacy in the late medieval period, significantly re-establishing its authority after decades of conciliar challenge and laying the groundwork for the Renaissance papacy.