The United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia (later named Romania) formed as a personal union under the rule of Domnitor Alexandru Ioan Cuza.

The Unification of Moldavia and Wallachia: Birth of the United Principalities

The formative period of the modern Romanian state began with the establishment of the United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, known in Romanian as Principatele Unite ale Moldovei și Țării Românești. This entity represented a pivotal personal union between the Principality of Moldavia and the Principality of Wallachia. This significant union materialized on 5 February [O.S. 24 January] 1859, a date etched in Romanian history. It was on this day that Alexandru Ioan Cuza was elected as the Domnitor, or Ruling Prince, of both principalities. Although enjoying substantial autonomy, these territories remained nominal vassals of the formidable Ottoman Empire, a geopolitical reality that shaped their path towards full sovereignty. Cuza's double election, seen by many as a revolutionary act circumventing the great powers' initial intentions to keep the principalities separate under distinct rulers, laid the foundational cornerstone for what would become a unified nation.

The journey from a personal union to a fully integrated state progressed rapidly. On 3 February [O.S. 22 January] 1862, Moldavia and Wallachia formally consolidated their administrative and constitutional structures, leading to the official creation of the Romanian United Principalities. This profound step involved the establishment of a single capital in Bucharest, a unified national assembly, and a single government. This formal union was not merely a political rearrangement; it represented the definitive core from which the modern Romanian nation-state would emerge, solidifying the national identity and aspirations that had been growing for decades.

The Reign of Alexandru Ioan Cuza: A Transformative Era

Alexandru Ioan Cuza (20 March 1820 – 15 May 1873), also known as Alexandru Ioan I, and sometimes anglicised as Alexander John Cuza, holds a revered place as the first Domnitor of the Romanian Principalities. His ascent was marked by his audacious double election: first as Prince of Moldavia on 5 January 1859, and then as Prince of Wallachia on 24 January 1859. This dual mandate, actively pursued by the fervent unionist movement and the ad hoc Divans (representative assemblies) of both principalities, effectively forced the hand of the suzerain Ottoman Empire and the Great European Powers, leading directly to the unification of the two states.

A prominent figure of the 1848 Revolution in Moldavia, which championed liberal ideals and national self-determination, Cuza brought a progressive vision to his rule. Following his unprecedented double election, he embarked on an ambitious program of reforms designed to modernize Romanian society and state institutions. These transformative initiatives, though often meeting fierce resistance, were crucial for the country's development:

Cuza tirelessly engaged in political and diplomatic efforts to secure the recognition of the union by the Ottoman Empire and other European powers. His persistence eventually led to the full constitutional and administrative unity of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1862, solidifying the name Romanian United Principalities, with Bucharest designated as the single capital, home to a unified national assembly and government. Despite his undeniable contributions to the foundation of modern Romania, Cuza's reform policies, particularly the land reform, alienated a powerful coalition of conservative landowners and radical liberals who opposed his increasingly authoritarian tendencies. This opposition, known as the "Monstrous Coalition," ultimately forced his abdication and exile on 22 February 1866. Despite his turbulent end, Alexandru Ioan Cuza is widely recognized today as one of the principal founders of the modern Romanian state and a revered national hero.

From Principality to Kingdom: Consolidating Romanian Sovereignty

Following Alexandru Ioan Cuza's forced abdication in February 1866, Romania's political future underwent another significant shift. A political coalition, predominantly led by Liberals, offered the throne to a foreign prince, Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, a member of a prominent German princely house. This choice was strategic, intended to secure international recognition, provide stability, and detach the fledgling state from internal factional struggles. Prince Karl, who would later be known as Carol I, entered Bucharest for the first time on 22 May [O.S. 10 May] 1866. His accession marked a new chapter, bringing a period of stability and consolidating the country's Western orientation.

Just two months later, in July 1866, a new constitution was promulgated. This liberal constitution formally named the country "Romania," a name that would gradually gain international acceptance. While this name was used internally from 1866, it was not universally adopted in foreign diplomatic relations until after 1877, largely because the foreign policy of the state was still formally dictated by the Ottoman Empire as part of its suzerainty. Nevertheless, the nominal suzerainty of the Sublime Porte had, by this time, largely become a legal fiction. Romania, in practice, asserted much of its independence; it possessed its own flag and national anthem, conducted its own foreign policy, and from 1867, even established its own independent currency, the Romanian leu, symbolizing its growing financial autonomy.

The ultimate assertion of full independence came on 21 May [O.S. 9 May] 1877, when Romania, seizing the opportunity presented by the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) – in which it actively participated alongside Russia – proclaimed its complete separation from Ottoman suzerainty. This momentous proclamation was formally sanctioned by Domnitor Carol I the very next day. This act of self-determination was subsequently recognized internationally at the Congress of Berlin in 1878. Four years later, consolidating its newly won sovereignty and elevated international status, the 1866 constitution was amended. On 22 May [O.S. 10 May] 1881, Romania officially transitioned from a principality to a kingdom, and Domnitor Carol I was crowned as the first King of Romania. This transformation marked the definitive end of Ottoman influence and the beginning of an era as a fully independent European monarchy. Following the First World War, through the principle of self-determination and the desire for national unity, significant territories such as Transylvania, Bessarabia, and Bukovina were incorporated, creating "Greater Romania" and fulfilling long-held national aspirations.

The date of May 10th holds profound historical significance for Romania. It was celebrated as the country's National Day until 1948, primarily due to its triple symbolic meaning: it commemorates the arrival of Prince Carol I in Bucharest in 1866, the proclamation of Romania's full independence in 1877, and the coronation of King Carol I in 1881. This deeply symbolic date ceased to be the National Day when Romanian and Soviet Communists, following the forced abdication of King Michael I on 30 December 1947, installed the Romanian People's Republic through a coup d'état, marking the end of the monarchy.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)

What was the primary purpose of forming the United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia?
The primary purpose was to unify the two historical Romanian principalities under a single ruler, Alexandru Ioan Cuza, thereby creating the foundational structure for a modern, independent Romanian nation-state, despite initial opposition from some European powers and the Ottoman Empire.
When did the United Principalities officially become "Romania"?
The country was internally named "Romania" with the adoption of the 1866 Constitution. However, it gained full international recognition and consistently used the name "Romania" in foreign policy only after achieving complete independence in 1877, and subsequently becoming a kingdom in 1881.
Why was Alexandru Ioan Cuza forced to abdicate?
Alexandru Ioan Cuza was forced to abdicate in 1866 due to opposition from a "Monstrous Coalition" of conservative landowners and radical liberals. They became increasingly alienated by his ambitious, sometimes autocratic, reforms, particularly the land reform which challenged the aristocracy's power, and his increasingly authoritarian style of governance.
What is the significance of May 10th in Romanian history?
May 10th (Old Style) held immense symbolic importance as Romania's National Day until 1948. It commemorated three pivotal events: Prince Carol I's arrival in Bucharest in 1866, the proclamation of Romania's full independence in 1877, and Carol I's coronation as the first King of Romania in 1881, all marking key stages in the country's state-building process.