The 7th and 10th US cavalry regiments under John J. Pershing cross the US-Mexico border to join the hunt for Pancho Villa.
John J. Pershing: "Black Jack" and the American Expeditionary Forces
Born on September 13, 1860, and living until July 15, 1948, John Joseph Pershing, famously known by his nickname "Black Jack," was an extraordinary senior officer in the United States Army. His most indelible mark on history came during World War I, where he commanded the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) on the Western Front from 1917 to 1918. Beyond leading the AEF to victory in that global conflict, Pershing's influence extended far into the future, as he mentored a generation of military leaders who would eventually guide the U.S. Army through World War II. Luminaries such as George C. Marshall, Dwight D. Eisenhower, Omar Bradley, Lesley J. McNair, George S. Patton, and Douglas MacArthur all benefited from his guidance and vision.
Commanding the AEF: Autonomy and Impact
During his critical command in World War I, Pershing made a pivotal decision that shaped the American war effort. He firmly rejected persistent demands from both British and French forces who wished to integrate American units directly into their own armies, essentially using them as replacement troops. Instead, Pershing insisted that the AEF would operate as a cohesive, independent fighting force under his sole command. While the vast majority of American forces indeed fought as a distinct entity, there were notable instances where some U.S. divisions operated under British command, particularly during the Battle of Hamel and in the crucial breaching of the Hindenburg Line at St. Quentin Canal, actions that significantly contributed to Germany's eventual collapse. Interestingly, Pershing also allowed American all-Black units, which were segregated at the time, to be integrated with the French Army, a practical decision born of wartime necessity.
Key Engagements and Strategic Maneuvers
Pershing's soldiers first faced the brutal realities of serious combat at Cantigny, then at Chateau-Thierry and Belleau Wood from June 1–26, 1918, followed by Soissons between July 18–22, 1918. To expedite their deployment to France, American troops embarked without much of their heavy equipment, instead relying on British and French tanks, artillery, airplanes, and other vital munitions. A significant moment arrived in September 1918 at St. Mihiel, where the First Army, directly under Pershing's command, launched a devastating offensive. They successfully overwhelmed the salient—a deep encroachment into Allied territory—that the German Army had stubbornly held for three long years. Later, for the immense Meuse-Argonne Offensive, Pershing masterfully shifted approximately 600,000 American soldiers into the heavily fortified Argonne forests. His divisions engaged in relentless, hard fighting for 47 days alongside their French allies. This fierce engagement, a critical part of the broader Allied Hundred Days Offensive, played a decisive role in compelling Germany to finally call for an armistice.
The Highest Rank: General of the Armies
John J. Pershing holds a unique place in American military history as the only individual to be promoted in his own lifetime to the rank of General of the Armies, the highest possible rank in the United States Army. When given the unprecedented opportunity to select his own insignia, Pershing, with characteristic modesty, chose to continue using four stars. Later, after the creation of the five-star General of the Army rank during World War II, his rank of General of the Armies could unofficially be considered equivalent to that of a six-star general. However, he passed away before any proposed insignia for this theoretical rank could be formally considered and acted upon by Congress.
Controversies and Criticisms
Despite his undeniable achievements, Pershing's tactics and decisions have not been without scrutiny, both from his contemporaries and from modern historians. He faced criticism for his reliance on costly frontal assaults, a strategy many other Allied armies had largely abandoned by that stage of the war. These tactics have been blamed for causing unnecessarily high American casualties. Perhaps one of the most significant historical criticisms leveled against Pershing concerns his actions on Armistice Day. As the commander of the American Expeditionary Force, Pershing did not approve of the armistice terms. Despite knowing of the imminent ceasefire, he controversially chose not to instruct his commanders to suspend new offensive actions or assaults in the final few hours of the war. Tragically, this resulted in over 11,000 casualties—dead, missing, or injured—on November 11 alone, a figure that astonishingly exceeded even the D-Day casualty counts seen later in 1944. Of these, approximately 3,500 American casualties were directly attributable to Pershing's decisions on that final day. Pershing was later questioned by Congress regarding the disproportionately high number of American casualties suffered during the very last day of World War I.