The Supreme Court of the United States decides Lochner v. New York, which holds that the "right to free contract" is implicit in the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution.

The Supreme Court of the United States (often abbreviated as SCOTUS) stands as the pinnacle of the federal judiciary, serving as the ultimate arbiter of law in the nation. It represents one of the three co-equal branches of government, playing a crucial role in the system of checks and balances established by the U.S. Constitution. Its authority primarily stems from its appellate jurisdiction, allowing it to review decisions from lower federal courts and state court cases that involve a point of federal law. This appellate power is largely discretionary, meaning the Court chooses which cases it will hear, typically through the issuance of a writ of certiorari, focusing on those with significant legal questions or conflicting interpretations of law across different circuits.

Beyond its extensive appellate role, the Supreme Court also possesses a limited original jurisdiction, enabling it to hear certain cases directly without prior review by a lower court. This specific authority, outlined in the Constitution, covers "all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, and those in which a State shall be Party." While these cases are rare, they underscore the Court's unique position in addressing matters of national and international significance directly.

The Power of Judicial Review

Perhaps the Court’s most profound power is that of judicial review, a doctrine not explicitly enumerated in the Constitution but firmly established by the landmark case of Marbury v. Madison in 1803. This authority grants the Court the ability to invalidate any statute—whether federal or state—or even presidential directives if they are found to violate the supreme law of the land, the U.S. Constitution, or federal statutory law. This power serves as a vital safeguard, ensuring that all governmental actions align with constitutional principles and the rule of law. However, the Court does not act unilaterally; its decisions are strictly confined to the context of a legitimate "case or controversy" within an area of law over which it has jurisdiction. Moreover, while it may deliberate on cases with significant political implications, the Court has historically recognized a boundary, ruling that it lacks the power to decide non-justiciable "political questions," thereby respecting the distinct roles of the executive and legislative branches.

Establishment and Composition

The foundation for the Supreme Court was laid in Article Three of the United States Constitution, which broadly outlines the judicial branch. The specific structure and procedures were then detailed by the 1st Congress through the seminal Judiciary Act of 1789. Over time, the Court's composition evolved, eventually being set at its current nine members—one Chief Justice of the United States and eight Associate Justices—by the Judiciary Act of 1869. This structure ensures a diverse range of legal perspectives in their deliberations.

Lifetime Tenure and Appointments

Each Supreme Court justice enjoys lifetime tenure, a distinct feature designed to insulate them from political pressures and enable them to make decisions based solely on the law, rather than popular opinion or electoral cycles. Justices remain on the Court until they choose to retire, resign, pass away, or are removed from office through the impeachment process. When a vacancy arises, it triggers a highly significant and often politically charged process: the President nominates a new justice, who then must undergo a rigorous confirmation hearing before the Senate. The appointment is finalized only with the "advice and consent" of the Senate, highlighting the critical role of both the executive and legislative branches in shaping the Court's future direction.

Decisions and Opinions

In deliberating on cases, each justice casts a single vote. When the Chief Justice is part of the majority in a decision, they have the influential role of assigning who will author the official "opinion of the Court," which explains the legal reasoning behind the ruling. If the Chief Justice is in the minority, this crucial task falls to the most senior Associate Justice among the majority. This process ensures that the Court's judgments are not only delivered but also thoroughly reasoned and articulated for posterity.

The Supreme Court conducts its vital work from the majestic Supreme Court Building in Washington, D.C., an iconic symbol of American justice. Its operations are supported by its own dedicated law enforcement arm, the Supreme Court Police, ensuring security and order within its premises.

A Landmark and Controversial Decision: Lochner v. New York (1905)

Among the annals of the Supreme Court's history, few cases evoke as much discussion and debate as Lochner v. New York, 198 U.S. 45 (1905). This pivotal decision by the U.S. Supreme Court struck down a New York state law that sought to limit the working hours for bakers. The Court ruled that this regulation infringed upon the bakers' fundamental "right to freedom of contract," a right it found implicitly protected by the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, specifically through its Due Process Clause.

The Genesis of the Case

The controversy began in 1899 when Joseph Lochner, a German immigrant who owned a small bakery in Utica, New York, was charged with violating the state's Bakeshop Act of 1895. This Progressive Era legislation aimed to improve working conditions by making it a criminal offense for bakeries to employ individuals for more than 10 hours a day or 60 hours a week. Lochner's conviction for this offense set in motion a legal challenge that would eventually reach the nation's highest court, raising profound questions about the balance between individual liberty and state regulatory power.

The Court's Ruling and the Dissent

In a closely divided 5-4 decision, a majority of the Supreme Court held that the New York Bakeshop Act was unconstitutional. The justices concluded that the law constituted an "unreasonable, unnecessary and arbitrary interference with the right and liberty of the individual to contract." This interpretation significantly expanded the concept of "substantive due process," using the Fourteenth Amendment's Due Process Clause to protect economic liberties not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution. The majority reasoned that the state's police power to regulate public health, safety, and morals did not extend to such an extent as to justify infringing upon an adult worker's ability to freely negotiate their terms of employment.

The four dissenting justices vehemently disagreed, arguing that the state had a legitimate interest in regulating working conditions for the health and safety of its citizens, particularly in demanding professions like baking. Among these dissents, that of Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. became particularly renowned and influential. Holmes famously stated that the Constitution "is not intended to embody a particular economic theory," criticizing the majority for imposing its own economic philosophy—laissez-faire capitalism—under the guise of constitutional interpretation. His dissent, along with others, laid the groundwork for future legal challenges to the Lochner-era jurisprudence.

The "Lochner Era" and Its Demise

Lochner v. New York became the namesake for a controversial period in American constitutional law known as the "Lochner era," which stretched from roughly 1897 to 1937. During this era, the Supreme Court frequently invoked the "freedom of contract" principle and substantive due process to strike down a multitude of federal and state statutes. These invalidated laws included various progressive reforms designed to regulate working conditions, establish minimum wages, and protect workers during times of significant social and economic upheaval, including the burgeoning industrial period and the Great Depression. The Court's conservative majority often viewed such regulations as infringements on economic liberty, prioritizing individual contractual freedom over collective welfare and state regulatory efforts.

However, the tide eventually turned. The "Lochner era" effectively concluded with the landmark decision of West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish (1937). In this case, the Supreme Court, responding to changing economic realities and political pressures, notably President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal agenda, upheld the constitutionality of minimum wage legislation enacted by Washington State. This decision marked a significant shift in judicial philosophy, curtailing the expansive interpretation of "freedom of contract" and paving the way for greater governmental intervention in the economy and the regulation of labor conditions. While Lochner itself has never been formally overturned by name, its underlying principles have been effectively repudiated and are no longer considered binding precedent by the Court.

Frequently Asked Questions About the U.S. Supreme Court

What is the primary role of the Supreme Court of the United States?
The Supreme Court serves as the highest judicial body in the U.S. federal judiciary, primarily hearing appeals from lower federal and state courts on matters involving federal law. It ensures the consistent interpretation and application of the Constitution and federal statutes across the nation.
What is "judicial review" and where does the Supreme Court get this power?
Judicial review is the Supreme Court's authority to declare legislative acts (laws passed by Congress or state legislatures) or executive actions (taken by the President) unconstitutional. While not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution, this power was firmly established in the 1803 case of Marbury v. Madison and is crucial for maintaining the system of checks and balances.
How many justices serve on the Supreme Court, and what are their titles?
The Supreme Court consists of nine members: one Chief Justice of the United States and eight Associate Justices. This number has been set since 1869.
How are Supreme Court justices appointed, and what is their term of office?
Justices are nominated by the President of the United States and must be confirmed by a majority vote of the Senate. They hold their positions under lifetime tenure, meaning they serve until they retire, resign, die, or are removed through the impeachment process. This ensures their independence from political pressures.
What was Lochner v. New York about, and why is it considered controversial?
Lochner v. New York (1905) was a landmark Supreme Court case where the Court struck down a New York law limiting bakers' working hours. The Court ruled it violated a "freedom of contract" implied by the Fourteenth Amendment's Due Process Clause. It's controversial because critics argue the Court overstepped its bounds by creating a "substantive" economic right, prioritizing economic liberty over the state's ability to protect workers' health and safety.
What was the "Lochner era"?
The "Lochner era" refers to a period from roughly 1897 to 1937 during which the Supreme Court frequently used the "freedom of contract" principle to invalidate state and federal laws that regulated working conditions, wages, and other economic activities. This era ended with cases like West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish (1937), which signaled a shift towards allowing greater governmental regulation of the economy.