Robert Peary and Matthew Henson reach the North Pole.

The annals of Arctic exploration are filled with tales of extraordinary courage and enduring controversy, none perhaps more emblematic than the intertwined narratives of Robert Edwin Peary Sr. and Matthew Alexander Henson. These two American explorers, a U.S. Navy officer and his indispensable African American companion, embarked on a series of perilous expeditions to the Arctic in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, culminating in their audacious claim of being the first to reach the geographic North Pole in April 1909. While their shared quest for the Pole defined much of their public legacy, their individual journeys were marked by distinct challenges, triumphs, and ethical dilemmas, all contributing to a complex and compelling chapter in human history.

Robert Peary: Ambition and Arctic Conquests

Born on May 6, 1856, in Cresson, Pennsylvania, Robert Edwin Peary Sr.'s early life took a formative turn when his father's passing led to his upbringing in Portland, Maine. His academic path led him to Bowdoin College, an institution that would later celebrate his achievements. Following his graduation, Peary began his professional journey as a draftsman with the U.S. National Geodetic Survey before enlisting in the United States Navy in 1881 as a civil engineer. This background proved invaluable, providing him with the practical and navigational skills crucial for his future endeavors. In 1885, his talents were recognized with an appointment as chief of surveying for the ambitious, albeit ultimately unbuilt, Nicaragua Canal project.

Peary's fascination with the frigid expanse of the Arctic began in 1886, when he made his initial, though unsuccessful, attempt to traverse Greenland by dogsled. Undeterred, he returned to the Arctic in 1891–1892 with significantly better preparation. This expedition to Greenland proved to be a landmark achievement, as he successfully reached Independence Fjord in what is now known as Peary Land. Through this feat, he conclusively demonstrated that Greenland was indeed an island, dispelling long-held geographical uncertainties. A pragmatic explorer, Peary was also among the first Western Arctic explorers to diligently study and adopt the vital survival techniques practiced by the indigenous Inuit people, recognizing their unparalleled expertise in navigating the harsh polar environment.

However, Peary's legacy is not without its shadow. During an expedition in 1894, he became the first Western explorer to locate the significant Cape York meteorite and its various fragments. While a scientific discovery, the acquisition of these meteorites was marred by a profoundly unethical act. Peary deceived six indigenous Inuit individuals, including a young boy named Minik Wallace, into traveling to America with him. He promised them a swift return laden with tools, weapons, and other valuable gifts. Tragically, this promise was never fulfilled, and within a few months, four of the six Inuit succumbed to illnesses, highlighting a disturbing chapter of exploitation in the history of exploration.

Continuing his relentless pursuit of polar achievements, Peary led another significant expedition from 1898 to 1902. During this period, he pushed the boundaries of known exploration, establishing a new "Farthest North" record by reaching Cape Morris Jesup, the northernmost point of Greenland. He mounted two more expeditions to the Arctic, in 1905–1906 and finally in 1908–1909. It was during this latter, climactic journey that he made the widely publicized claim of having reached the geographic North Pole.

In recognition of his ambitious explorations, Peary received several prestigious awards from learned societies throughout his lifetime. In 1911, the United States Congress formally extended its "Thanks of Congress" to him, and he was promoted to the rank of Rear Admiral. Prior to his retirement in 1911, he also served two terms as the distinguished president of The Explorers Club, an organization dedicated to scientific exploration and discovery.

Matthew Henson: The Indispensable Companion

Born on August 8, 1866, in Nanjemoy, Maryland, Matthew Alexander Henson’s early life was shaped by humble beginnings. His parents were sharecroppers, part of the free Black American community even before the tumultuous era of the Civil War. Spending much of his formative years in Washington, D.C., Henson's formal education was cut short at the age of twelve when he embarked on a life at sea as a cabin boy, gaining invaluable practical experience and a keen sense of navigation. Later, he returned to Washington, finding work as a salesclerk in a well-regarded department store. It was there, amidst the bustling city life, that a chance encounter would forever alter the course of his destiny. One of his customers was none other than Robert Peary, who, recognizing Henson's intelligence and resourcefulness, hired him in 1887 as a personal valet. At that time, Peary was deeply involved in the Nicaragua Canal project, a venture far removed from the icy reaches where their legacies would ultimately intertwine.

The bond between Peary and Henson solidified during their first joint Arctic expedition in 1891–1892. Henson quickly proved himself to be far more than a valet, serving as a skilled navigator and craftsman—a crucial asset in the unforgiving polar environment. He became known as Peary's "first man," a testament to his essential role and unwavering loyalty. Much like Peary, Henson dedicated himself to studying and mastering the sophisticated survival techniques of the Inuit people. Crucially, he also learned their language, fostering deep relationships and mutual respect with the indigenous communities, a skill that often facilitated the expedition's progress and survival. This linguistic and cultural immersion afforded him a unique perspective and an unparalleled ability to interact with the local populations, making him indispensable to Peary's ambitious Arctic goals.

Their most famous undertaking was the 1908–1909 expedition to Greenland, which culminated in the controversial claim of reaching the geographic North Pole on April 6, 1909. Henson was one of the six men—alongside Peary and four expert Inuit assistants—who formed the final push towards the Pole. In subsequent interviews and his own memoir, Henson consistently stated that he was the first member of their party to physically reach what they believed to be the North Pole. His deep understanding of the Arctic terrain, his expert handling of sled dogs, and his navigation skills were paramount to the expedition's final, challenging leg.

Despite his integral role, Henson's achievements, like those of many African American pioneers, received delayed recognition compared to his white counterpart. However, a degree of fame did come his way, solidified by the publication of his memoir, A Negro Explorer at the North Pole, in 1912. As he aged, his extraordinary exploits gained renewed attention and appreciation. In 1937, he broke another barrier, becoming the first African American to be granted life membership in The Explorers Club, an honor further elevated in 1948 when he attained the club's highest level of membership. His contributions were also recognized by the U.S. government when he was awarded the Peary Polar Expedition Medal in 1944. Later in life, he was received at the White House by Presidents Harry Truman and Dwight Eisenhower, a testament to his rising stature. In a poignant tribute to his enduring legacy, he and his wife were re-interred at Arlington National Cemetery in 1988. Further posthumous honors followed: in 2000, he received the prestigious Hubbard Medal from the National Geographic Society, and in September 2021, the International Astronomical Union named a lunar crater after him, cementing his place not just in Earth's history, but among the stars.

The Enduring North Pole Controversy

The claim made by Robert Peary and Matthew Henson, on April 6, 1909, to have reached the geographic North Pole ignited one of the most significant and enduring controversies in the history of exploration. This assertion was immediately challenged by another prominent American explorer, Frederick Cook, who claimed to have reached the Pole a year earlier, on April 21, 1908. The "Peary-Cook Controversy" captivated the world, fueling intense debate and scrutiny for decades, as both men presented their evidence and accounts to a skeptical public and scientific community.

Initially, Peary's claim, largely supported by his reputation and institutional backing, gained widespread acceptance in many circles. However, skepticism persisted, and the challenges of accurately navigating and verifying one's position in the featureless, shifting ice of the Arctic Ocean were well understood. The absence of reliable landmarks, the vagaries of compass readings near the magnetic pole, and the primitive navigational tools of the era made definitive proof exceedingly difficult to obtain.

The debate surrounding their achievement was reignited and brought to a critical juncture in 1989. British explorer and Arctic historian Wally Herbert, recognized as a leading authority on polar travel, published extensive research that cast significant doubt on Peary's and Henson's claims. Herbert, who himself had successfully crossed the Arctic Ocean on foot, meticulously analyzed expedition records, diaries, and navigational data. His findings suggested that the reported speeds during the final push for the Pole were implausibly high for the conditions, raising questions about the reliability of their records. Herbert concluded that while Peary and his team, including Henson, made a remarkable journey and likely came very close, they may have fallen short of the true geographic North Pole by approximately 30 to 60 miles (48 to 97 kilometers) due to navigational errors and the inherent difficulties of the environment. This re-evaluation brought a nuanced perspective to the long-standing dispute, acknowledging their incredible endurance and skill while questioning the final, ultimate success of their most famous claim.

Frequently Asked Questions About Peary and Henson

Q: What was Robert Peary best known for?
A: Robert Peary is primarily known for leading an expedition in April 1909 that claimed to be the first to reach the geographic North Pole.
Q: What was Matthew Henson's role in the North Pole expedition?
A: Matthew Henson was Robert Peary's indispensable companion and a key member of the 1908-1909 expedition. He served as a navigator, craftsman, and was highly skilled in Arctic survival and Inuit languages. He himself stated he was the first of their party to reach what they believed was the North Pole.
Q: Were Peary and Henson actually the first to reach the North Pole?
A: While their claim gained widespread acceptance for a time, it has been significantly debated. In 1989, British explorer Wally Herbert published research suggesting that while they came very close, they likely did not reach the true geographic North Pole, possibly falling short by 30 to 60 miles (48 to 97 km).
Q: How did Peary and Henson meet?
A: Robert Peary met Matthew Henson in Washington, D.C., in 1887, where Henson was working as a salesclerk. Peary, impressed by Henson's abilities, hired him as his personal valet for the Nicaragua Canal project.
Q: What were some of Peary's other notable achievements?
A: Besides his North Pole claim, Peary definitively proved Greenland was an island (1891-1892), set a "Farthest North" record at Cape Morris Jesup (1898-1902), and was among the first Western explorers to study Inuit survival techniques. He also located the Cape York meteorite, though his methods of acquiring it were controversial.
Q: What significant contributions did Matthew Henson make beyond the North Pole expedition?
A: Matthew Henson was crucial to Peary's success on seven Arctic expeditions over 23 years. He was known for his exceptional navigation skills, dog-sled handling, craftsmanship, and fluency in the Inuit language, which greatly aided the expeditions. He also published a memoir, A Negro Explorer at the North Pole, and received significant posthumous recognition, including being re-interred at Arlington National Cemetery and having a lunar crater named after him.
Q: What was the controversy surrounding the Cape York meteorite?
A: In 1894, Robert Peary located the Cape York meteorite. He then controversially deceived six Inuit individuals, including Minik Wallace, into traveling to America by promising a return with gifts. This promise was unfulfilled, and four of the six Inuit died of illnesses within months, leaving a dark stain on Peary's legacy regarding his interactions with indigenous populations.
Q: Why was Matthew Henson's recognition delayed?
A: As an African American explorer in the early 20th century, Matthew Henson faced systemic racial barriers that often overshadowed his significant contributions, leading to delayed public and institutional recognition compared to his white counterparts. However, later in life and posthumously, his pivotal role gained much-deserved acclaim.