The American Civil War, a pivotal and often tumultuous period in United States history, raged from April 12, 1861, to May 9, 1865, though it is sometimes referred to by various other names reflecting its profound impact. This internal conflict saw the nation divided between the Union, comprising states that upheld their loyalty to the federal government, often simply called "the North," and the Confederacy, formed by southern states that had chosen to secede from the Union, known as "the South."

At the heart of this devastating conflict was the deeply contentious issue of slavery, particularly its potential expansion into new territories acquired through events like the Louisiana Purchase and the Mexican-American War. By 1860, on the eve of the war, a staggering four million Black people, accounting for approximately 13% of the total 32 million Americans, were held in bondage, with the vast majority residing in the southern states. The practice of slavery had become one of the most polarizing political issues of the 19th century, fueling decades of increasing unrest.

The simmering tensions ultimately boiled over following Abraham Lincoln's victory in the 1860 United States presidential election. Lincoln, campaigning on a platform staunchly opposing the expansion of slavery, signaled a future where the institution's growth would be curtailed. In response, an initial seven southern slave states declared their secession, moving to establish the Confederacy. These newly formed Confederate forces quickly seized federal forts situated within the territories they now claimed. Despite a last-ditch effort through the Crittenden Compromise to avert the impending conflict, both sides inexorably prepared for war. Hostilities officially erupted in April 1861 when the Confederate army initiated the Battle of Fort Sumter in South Carolina, a mere month after Abraham Lincoln's first inauguration.

As the war progressed, the Confederacy eventually managed to assert control over at least a majority of the territory within eleven states (out of the 34 U.S. states existing in February 1861), also laying claims to two additional territories. Both the Union and the Confederacy rapidly mobilized their populations, raising formidable armies through both volunteer enlistment and conscription. What followed was four grueling years of intense combat, predominantly fought across the southern landscape.

The early years of the war saw distinct outcomes across different theaters. During 1861–1862, the Union made significant and lasting strategic gains in the Western Theater, notably along crucial waterways. However, in the Eastern Theater, which included the areas around the respective capitals of Washington D.C. and Richmond, the conflict remained largely inconclusive, marked by fierce but indecisive battles.

A monumental shift in the war's purpose occurred on January 1, 1863, when President Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation. This historic declaration transformed the conflict into a moral crusade, officially making the abolition of slavery a primary war goal. It proclaimed that all enslaved persons in states then in rebellion "forever free." Further west, the Union demonstrated its growing strength by systematically destroying the Confederate river navy by the summer of 1862, then crippling much of its western armies and successfully capturing the vital port city of New Orleans. The strategically crucial 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg further solidified their advantage, effectively splitting the Confederacy in two along the Mississippi River. In the east during the same year, Confederate General Robert E. Lee's ambitious incursion into northern territory was decisively halted at the Battle of Gettysburg, a turning point in the war.

These accumulating successes in the Western Theater led to the promotion of General Ulysses S. Grant, who was placed in command of all Union armies in 1864. Grant, along with his commanders, then orchestrated a comprehensive strategy: inflicting an ever-tightening naval blockade on Confederate ports to choke off supplies, while marshaling immense resources and manpower to assault the Confederacy from multiple directions. This relentless pressure culminated in the fall of Atlanta in 1864 to Union General William Tecumseh Sherman, followed by his infamous "March to the Sea," a devastating campaign through Georgia. The final significant battles of the war revolved around the ten-month Siege of Petersburg, a critical gateway to Richmond, the Confederate capital.

The American Civil War effectively drew to a close on April 9, 1865, when Confederate General Robert E. Lee formally surrendered his Army of Northern Virginia to Union General Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Court House, just days after abandoning the beleaguered cities of Petersburg and Richmond. This momentous surrender set a precedent, and other Confederate generals across the collapsing South soon followed suit, laying down their arms. While Lee's surrender is often cited as the war's end, the conclusion of the American Civil War surprisingly lacks a single, clean end date, with scattered land forces continuing to surrender until as late as June 23, 1865.

In the aftermath of four devastating years, much of the South's infrastructure lay in ruins, with its crucial railroad networks particularly decimated. The Confederacy itself collapsed entirely, slavery was abolished across the nation, and four million previously enslaved Black people were finally freed. The war-torn nation then embarked upon the challenging Reconstruction era, a partially successful endeavor to rebuild the devastated southern states and, crucially, to grant civil rights to the newly freed slaves.

The Civil War remains one of the most extensively studied and written about episodes in the history of the United States. It continues to be a vibrant subject of cultural and historiographical debate, with particular interest surrounding the enduring, though often contested, myth of the Lost Cause of the Confederacy, which romanticized the Southern cause and downplayed slavery's role. This war also stands out as one of the earliest examples of industrial warfare, witnessing the widespread deployment of innovative technologies such as railroads for rapid troop and supply movement, the telegraph for swift communication, steamships, the formidable ironclad warship, and mass-produced weaponry. In its tragic toll, the conflict claimed the lives of an estimated 620,000 to 750,000 soldiers, alongside an undetermined number of civilian casualties, making it the deadliest military conflict in American history. Adding to the profound sorrow, President Lincoln himself was assassinated a mere five days after Lee's surrender. The technological advancements and brutal realities of the Civil War ultimately offered a stark and chilling foreshadowing of the large-scale global conflicts that would define the coming World Wars.

Robert E. Lee's Farewell Address to the Army of Northern Virginia

Confederate General Robert E. Lee issued his poignant Farewell Address, formally known as General Order No. 9 (and sometimes referred to simply as Orders), to his beloved Army of Northern Virginia on April 10, 1865. This significant document was released the very day after he had made the agonizing decision to surrender his army to Union Lieutenant General Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Court House. Lee's act of surrender and the subsequent address were profoundly instrumental in bringing about the definitive end of the American Civil War.

The text of this historic order, meticulously drafted by Colonel Charles Marshall, then carefully edited and finalized by General Lee himself, was issued as follows:

Headquarters, Army of Northern Virginia, 10th April 1865.

General Order No. 9

After four years of arduous service marked by unsurpassed courage and fortitude, the Army of Northern Virginia has been compelled to yield to overwhelming numbers and resources.

I need not tell the survivors of so many hard fought battles, who have remained steadfast to the last, that I have consented to the result from no distrust of them.

But feeling that valour and devotion could accomplish nothing that could compensate for the loss that must have attended the continuance of the contest, I have determined to avoid the useless sacrifice of those whose past services have endeared them to their countrymen.

By the terms of the agreement, officers and men can return to their homes and remain until exchanged. You will take with you the satisfaction that proceeds from the consciousness of duty faithfully performed, and I earnestly pray that a merciful God will extend to you his blessing and protection.

With an unceasing admiration of your constancy and devotion to your Country, and a grateful remembrance of your kind and generous consideration for myself, I bid you an affectionate farewell.

The Story Behind General Order No. 9

Insights into the creation of this momentous order come from a letter dated September 27, 1887, written by Colonel Charles Marshall, CSA, to General Bradley T. Johnson. Marshall, who served as Lee's aide-de-camp, recounted the circumstances surrounding the drafting of the Farewell Address.

According to Marshall, General Lee's order to the Army of Northern Virginia at Appomattox Court House was penned the day following the historic meeting at Wilmer McLean's house, where the terms of surrender had been finalized and agreed upon. That particular night, General Lee gathered with several of his staff around a campfire in front of his tent. Amidst their conversation about the army's fate and the day's somber events, Lee powerfully expressed his profound feelings and admiration for his men. It was then that he instructed Colonel Marshall to prepare the order to the troops.

The next day proved challenging for the task. It was raining, and there was a constant stream of people coming and going, making it impossible for Marshall to write without interruption. Around 10 o'clock that morning, General Lee, noticing that the order had not yet been prepared, took a thoughtful step. He directed Marshall to climb into his personal ambulance, which was conveniently parked near his tent, and even stationed an orderly to ensure no one would disturb him. This considerate act allowed Marshall the quiet and focus needed for such an important task.

Marshall remained in the ambulance until he had completed writing the order. He revealed that the very first draft, written in pencil, initially contained an entire paragraph that General Lee ultimately decided to omit. Lee also made one or two verbal adjustments to the text. Following these revisions, Marshall created a clean copy of the corrected order and entrusted it to one of the clerks in the adjutant-general's office to be formally written in ink. Once the clerk had finished, Marshall took the inked copy back to General Lee, who then signed it. Subsequently, additional copies were made for distribution to the corps commanders and the army staff, all of which were also personally signed by the General. Interestingly, many other individuals also sent in copies they had made or acquired, seeking and obtaining Lee's signature. This practice led to numerous copies of the order bearing General Lee's authentic signature, appearing as if they were originals, some of which Colonel Marshall himself had observed.

Frequently Asked Questions About the American Civil War and General Lee's Farewell

What were the primary dates of the American Civil War?

The American Civil War officially began on April 12, 1861, and largely concluded with major surrenders by May 9, 1865, though scattered surrenders of land forces continued until June 23, 1865.

Who were the main combatants in the Civil War?

The war was fought between the Union, which represented the states loyal to the federal government (often called "the North"), and the Confederacy, which comprised southern states that had seceded from the Union (known as "the South").

What was the central cause of the American Civil War?

The central and defining cause of the war was the status of slavery, particularly the heated debate and conflict over whether slavery should be allowed to expand into new United States territories.

How did Abraham Lincoln's election impact the outbreak of the war?

Abraham Lincoln won the 1860 presidential election on an anti-slavery expansion platform. His victory prompted seven southern slave states to declare their secession from the country, forming the Confederacy, which ultimately led to the war's outbreak.

What was the significance of the Emancipation Proclamation?

Issued by President Lincoln on January 1, 1863, the Emancipation Proclamation declared all persons held as slaves in states then in rebellion "forever free," officially making the ending of slavery a fundamental war goal for the Union.

Who were the key military leaders at the end of the war?

At the war's conclusion, Union General Ulysses S. Grant was in command of all Union armies, while Confederate General Robert E. Lee led the Army of Northern Virginia, ultimately surrendering to Grant.

Where did General Robert E. Lee surrender?

Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered to Union General Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Court House on April 9, 1865.

What was the immediate aftermath of the Civil War?

Following the war, the Confederacy collapsed, slavery was abolished, and four million enslaved Black people were freed. Much of the South's infrastructure, especially railroads, was destroyed, leading into the Reconstruction era to rebuild the nation and address civil rights for freed slaves.

How many soldiers died in the American Civil War?

The American Civil War resulted in an estimated 620,000 to 750,000 soldier deaths, making it the deadliest military conflict in American history, in addition to an undetermined number of civilian casualties.

What was General Order No. 9?

General Order No. 9 is Robert E. Lee's Farewell Address to his Army of Northern Virginia, issued on April 10, 1865, the day after his surrender, expressing his respect, sorrow, and gratitude to his troops.

Who drafted General Lee's Farewell Address?

The first draft of General Order No. 9 was written by Colonel Charles Marshall, General Lee's aide-de-camp, and then edited and finalized by Lee himself.