Ioannis Metaxas, Greek general and politician, 130th Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1941)

Ioannis Metaxas, a figure whose life and actions profoundly shaped twentieth-century Greece, was a distinguished military officer and, later, an influential politician. Born on April 12, 1871, into an aristocratic family on the Ionian island of Ithaca, his career trajectory led him from the battlefields to the highest echelons of power, culminating in his tenure as Prime Minister of Greece from 1936 until his death on January 29, 1941.

Metaxas's early career was marked by his military acumen. He participated in the Greco-Turkish War of 1897, a conflict that highlighted the vulnerabilities of the Greek state, and later played a significant role in the pivotal Balkan Wars (1912–1913), which dramatically reshaped the geopolitical map of Southeast Europe and expanded Greece's borders. His strategic mind and leadership qualities saw him quickly ascend through the ranks of the Hellenic Army, earning him a reputation as a capable and disciplined officer, with a keen understanding of military strategy, often shaped by his training in Germany.

A Nation Divided: The National Schism and Exile

The early 20th century in Greece was a period of intense political turmoil, famously known as the National Schism. This deep ideological rift fundamentally divided Greek society and politics into two main camps: the Venizelists, who supported the liberal statesman Eleftherios Venizelos and generally favored parliamentary democracy and close ties with the Entente Powers, and the Monarchists, who aligned with King Constantine I and preferred a more traditional role for the monarchy and often favored neutrality or even ties with the Central Powers during World War I. Ioannis Metaxas was a staunch Monarchist, deeply committed to the institution of the monarchy.

His unwavering stance led him to unsuccessfully oppose Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos's push for Greece's entry into World War I on the side of the Entente. This opposition, rooted in his strategic concerns and monarchist loyalties, ultimately led to his exile to Corsica in 1917, a testament to the high stakes and deep divisions of the era. This period of political isolation lasted until the political winds shifted once more in Greece.

Return to Politics and the Ascent to Power

Upon his return to Greece, Metaxas transitioned from military life more directly into the political arena. He founded the Freethinkers' Party, an attempt to gather conservative and royalist sentiments under a new banner. However, his political endeavors met with only limited success during the volatile period of the Hellenic Republic, which was characterized by frequent governmental changes and continued political instability, often oscillating between republican and monarchical aspirations. The political landscape was a challenging one for any nascent party to establish a firm footing.

The fortunes of Metaxas, and indeed the Greek monarchy, dramatically shifted in 1935 when the monarchy was restored after a plebiscite. In the midst of this turbulent political environment, King George II appointed Ioannis Metaxas as Prime Minister in April 1936. Greece was grappling with significant social unrest, including widespread labor strikes and the rise of communist influence, which many conservatives, including the King and Metaxas, viewed with alarm.

The 4th of August Regime: An Authoritarian Turn

Just four months into his premiership, on August 4, 1936, Metaxas, with the crucial backing of King George II, orchestrated a self-coup. This pivotal event saw him abolish the parliamentary system and establish an authoritarian, nationalist, and anti-communist regime, known retrospectively as the "4th of August Regime." This move was justified by its proponents as necessary to prevent a communist takeover and to restore order amidst a perceived state of national crisis. The regime was characterized by tight state control over society, a strong emphasis on national unity, the suppression of political opposition, and the implementation of various social and economic programs, often inspired by contemporary authoritarian models in Europe.

Metaxas's vision for Greece was one of order and discipline, echoing similar sentiments found in other European countries during the interwar period. He sought to rejuvenate Greek society through a blend of traditional values and modern state-building, including the creation of the National Youth Organization (EON), aimed at instilling patriotism and physical discipline in the younger generation.

World War II and the Historic "Ohi"

As the shadows of the Second World War lengthened across Europe, Metaxas initially attempted to steer Greece on a path of neutrality, a challenging endeavor given Greece's strategic geographical position in the Mediterranean. However, this neutrality was tested to its limits on October 28, 1940, when Italy, led by Benito Mussolini, issued an ultimatum demanding the surrender of strategic Greek territories. Metaxas famously delivered a resolute "Ohi" (meaning "No") to the Italian ambassador, a powerful declaration of national defiance that committed Greece to the side of the Allies. This courageous refusal marked Greece's entry into World War II and initiated the Greco-Italian War, a conflict in which the Hellenic Army initially achieved surprising successes against the invading Italian forces, bolstering national morale and earning international admiration.

Legacy and Untimely Demise

Ioannis Metaxas died on January 29, 1941, under circumstances that have sometimes been debated but were officially attributed to phlegmon of the pharynx, just months after his historic "Ohi" and before the devastating German invasion of Greece in April 1941. His death left a leadership vacuum at a critical juncture for the nation. Metaxas's legacy remains complex and controversial in Greece. He is remembered by some as a dictator who suppressed democratic freedoms and established an authoritarian state. By others, he is revered as a national hero whose decisive rejection of the Italian ultimatum ignited the spirit of resistance and courageously aligned Greece with the Allied cause against Axis aggression. The annual celebration of "Ohi Day" on October 28 continues to commemorate his pivotal decision, solidifying his place in Greek collective memory.

Frequently Asked Questions about Ioannis Metaxas

What was the "4th of August Regime"?

The "4th of August Regime" was an authoritarian, nationalist, and anti-communist government established by Ioannis Metaxas in Greece on August 4, 1936, with the support of King George II. It abolished parliamentary democracy and imposed strict state control, aiming to restore order and suppress perceived threats like communism.

Why did Ioannis Metaxas reject the Italian ultimatum in 1940?

Metaxas rejected the Italian ultimatum on October 28, 1940, to surrender strategic Greek territories because he believed it was an affront to Greek sovereignty and national honor. His famous "Ohi" ("No") demonstrated Greece's unwavering determination to defend its independence against Axis aggression, committing the country to the Allied cause in World War II.

What was Metaxas's role during the National Schism?

During the National Schism, a deep political divide in Greece, Metaxas was a staunch Monarchist. He opposed Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos and Greece's entry into World War I on the side of the Entente, advocating for the monarchy and often for neutrality. His strong monarchist stance ultimately led to his exile in 1917.

How is Ioannis Metaxas generally remembered in Greece today?

Ioannis Metaxas's legacy is highly complex and controversial. He is viewed by some as a dictator who curtailed democratic freedoms and established an authoritarian regime. Conversely, many remember him as a national hero for his courageous "Ohi" to the Italian ultimatum in 1940, a decision that led Greece to resist Axis powers and is celebrated annually as "Ohi Day."

Who was King George II in relation to Metaxas's rise to power?

King George II played a crucial role in Metaxas's rise to power. After the restoration of the monarchy in 1935, King George II appointed Metaxas as Prime Minister in April 1936. Crucially, the King also supported Metaxas's self-coup on August 4, 1936, which established the authoritarian "4th of August Regime," effectively making the King complicit in the dissolution of parliamentary rule.