Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, affectionately known to many simply as Gandhi, was a towering figure of the 20th century. Born on 2 October 1869 and tragically assassinated on 30 January 1948, he was an Indian lawyer, a fervent anti-colonial nationalist, and a profound political ethicist. His most enduring legacy is his pioneering use of nonviolent resistance, a philosophy he called Satyagraha, which successfully spearheaded India's arduous yet ultimately triumphant struggle for independence from British colonial rule. Beyond India's borders, his methods and moral fortitude inspired numerous movements for civil rights and freedom across the globe, cementing his status as a universal symbol of peace and justice. The revered honorific

Mahātmā

, a Sanskrit term signifying "great-souled" or "venerable," was first bestowed upon him in South Africa in 1914, and it is by this epithet that he is now recognized and revered worldwide.

Born into a Hindu family and raised in the coastal region of Gujarat, India, Gandhi's early life laid the foundation for his later endeavors. He embarked on his legal education at the Inner Temple in London, a prestigious one of the four Inns of Court, and was officially called to the bar in June 1891 at the age of 22. However, his initial attempts to establish a successful law practice in India proved challenging, leading to two rather uncertain years. A pivotal moment arrived in 1893 when he accepted an opportunity to represent an Indian merchant in a lawsuit, prompting his relocation to South Africa. What began as a professional engagement soon evolved into a profound, 21-year sojourn during which he not only raised a family but also encountered the harsh realities of racial discrimination. It was in this crucible of injustice that Gandhi first truly honed and effectively employed his philosophy of nonviolent resistance in a spirited campaign for civil rights, laying the groundwork for his future leadership in India.

Gandhi's Return to India and the Fight for Swaraj

In 1915, at the age of 45, Gandhi returned to India, bringing with him invaluable experience and a tested methodology for social and political change. His arrival marked a new chapter in India's independence movement. He quickly immersed himself in the grassroots, meticulously organizing peasants, farmers, and urban laborers to protest against oppressive land-taxes and pervasive discrimination that plagued ordinary Indians. By 1921, Gandhi had assumed the undisputed leadership of the Indian National Congress, transforming it from an elite body into a mass movement. Under his guidance, the Congress launched nationwide campaigns addressing critical societal issues: easing the widespread poverty, advocating for the expansion of women's rights, fostering religious and ethnic harmony, and, crucially, working towards the eradication of untouchability, a deeply entrenched social evil. Above all, his overarching goal was the attainment of

swaraj

, or complete self-rule, for India.

Gandhi's personal life choices mirrored his political philosophy. He famously adopted a simple, short dhoti woven from hand-spun yarn, a deliberate choice to identify himself with India's vast rural poor and underscore the importance of self-reliance and indigenous industries. He committed to living in self-sufficient residential communities, embraced a diet of simple, often ascetic food, and regularly undertook long fasts. These fasts served a dual purpose: they were a profound means of personal introspection and spiritual discipline, as well as potent tools for political protest, often used to appeal to the conscience of both the populace and the authorities. Gandhi possessed an extraordinary ability to connect anti-colonial nationalism with the everyday experiences of common Indians. This was powerfully demonstrated in 1930 with the iconic 400 km (250 mi) Dandi Salt March, a nonviolent challenge to the British-imposed salt tax that galvanized the nation. Later, in 1942, he issued the unequivocal call for the British to "Quit India." Throughout these tumultuous decades, Gandhi endured numerous imprisonments, spending many years behind bars in both South Africa and India, yet his resolve remained unbroken.

Partition, Assassination, and Enduring Legacy

As India edged closer to independence in the early 1940s, Gandhi's vision of a religiously pluralistic India faced a formidable challenge from a rising tide of Muslim nationalism, which increasingly demanded a separate homeland for Muslims within British India. Ultimately, despite Gandhi's deep anguish, in August 1947, Britain granted independence, but it came at the cost of partitioning the British Indian Empire into two distinct dominions: a Hindu-majority India and a Muslim-majority Pakistan. This momentous, yet fraught, division triggered an exodus of unprecedented scale, as millions of displaced Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs embarked on perilous journeys to their newly designated homelands. The accompanying chaos tragically erupted into widespread religious violence, particularly devastating the regions of Punjab and Bengal.

Amidst the official celebrations of independence, Gandhi chose to abstain, instead dedicating himself to visiting the ravaged areas, tirelessly working to alleviate the immense distress and suffering. In the difficult months that followed, he undertook several more hunger strikes, his life literally on the line, in a desperate attempt to quell the escalating religious violence. His final fast, commenced in Delhi on 12 January 1948, when he was 78 years old, aimed not only to halt the communal bloodshed but also, indirectly, to pressure the newly formed Indian government to release cash assets owed to Pakistan. Although both the Indian government and, gradually, the religious rioters relented, a perilous narrative began to circulate among some Hindus in India: that Gandhi had been excessively resolute in his defense of both Pakistan and Indian Muslims, especially those besieged in Delhi. This dangerous sentiment found fertile ground in the heart of Nathuram Godse, a militant Hindu nationalist from western India. Tragically, on 30 January 1948, at an inter-faith prayer meeting in Delhi, Godse assassinated Gandhi by firing three bullets into his chest, bringing an abrupt and sorrowful end to the life of the Mahatma.

Gandhi's profound legacy continues to be celebrated globally. His birthday, 2 October, is observed across India as

Gandhi Jayanti

, a cherished national holiday, and is recognized worldwide as the International Day of Nonviolence. While never formally conferred, he is universally and affectionately regarded as the

Father of the Nation

in India, often lovingly referred to as

Bapu

, a Gujarati term of endearment for "father" or "papa."

The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre: A Turning Point in India's Struggle

On 13 April 1919, a date etched permanently into the annals of Indian history, the serene garden enclosure known as Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar, Punjab, became the scene of an unspeakable tragedy, forever known as the Amritsar Massacre. On that fateful Baisakhi day, a large, peaceful assembly of Indian men, women, and children had gathered. Their purpose was to protest the arrest of Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr. Satya Pal, two prominent leaders advocating for Indian independence, under the draconian Rowlatt Act. Unbeknownst to many, the public gathering had been declared illegal by the British authorities, setting the stage for a brutal confrontation.

In a chilling display of martial law, the temporary Brigadier General R. E. H. Dyer arrived at the Bagh with his Gurkha British Indian Army unit and Sindh regiment. Jallianwala Bagh was uniquely configured, with high walls on three sides and only a few narrow entrances, making it a natural trap. Dyer, without warning or any call to disperse, ordered his troops to block the main exit. He then commanded them to open fire on the unarmed crowd, indiscriminately shooting into the densely packed civilians. The firing continued relentlessly, even as people desperately tried to flee, until the troops’ ammunition was entirely exhausted. The ensuing carnage was horrific: estimates of the dead vary widely, from 379 in official British reports to over 1,500 in unofficial Indian accounts, with more than 1,200 people injured, 192 of whom suffered severe wounds. This act of casual brutality shocked the conscience of a nation.

Reactions, Repercussions, and a Lasting Impact

The Jallianwala Bagh massacre immediately polarized opinion across both British and Indian societies. While some, like the Anglo-Indian author Rudyard Kipling, notoriously defended Dyer's actions by stating he "did his duty as he saw it," the incident deeply horrified many others. Among them was Rabindranath Tagore, an eminent Indian polymath and the first Asian Nobel laureate, who was so profoundly shaken that he publicly renounced his knighthood in protest, declaring it a badge of shame.

Internally, the massacre prompted a re-evaluation within the British Army regarding its engagement with civilian populations, purportedly shifting towards a policy of "minimal force whenever possible." However, as historian Huw Bennett has noted, later British actions, such as during the Mau Mau insurgencies in Kenya, suggest that this new policy could, at times, be conveniently set aside. The army did, however, retrain its forces and developed less violent tactics for crowd control. Nevertheless, the sheer brutality of the attack, coupled with a shocking lack of immediate accountability for Dyer, stunned the entire Indian nation. This event irrevocably shattered the general Indian public's diminishing faith in the benign intentions of the United Kingdom and fueled a widespread sense of betrayal.

Prominent British figures also condemned the act. Winston Churchill, then Secretary of State for War, denounced it as "unutterably monstrous." In a pivotal House of Commons debate on 8 July 1920, Members of Parliament decisively voted 247 to 37 against Dyer, leading to his forced retirement. Yet, the initial accolades Dyer received from some quarters, combined with what was perceived as an ineffective official inquiry, only intensified widespread anger among the Indian populace against British rule. This outrage directly contributed to the launch of the Non-Cooperation Movement of 1920–22, a major turning point in India's independence struggle under Gandhi's leadership. Many historians now view the Jallianwala Bagh episode as a decisive step towards the ultimate end of British rule in India. While Britain has never issued a formal apology for the massacre, it did express "deep regret" in 2019, marking a significant, albeit belated, acknowledgement of the profound suffering caused.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Who was Mahatma Gandhi?

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was an Indian lawyer, anti-colonial nationalist, and political ethicist who led India to independence from British rule through nonviolent resistance. He is globally recognized as an inspiration for civil rights and freedom movements.

What does the honorific "Mahatma" mean?

"Mahatma" is a Sanskrit term meaning "great-souled" or "venerable." It was first applied to Gandhi in 1914 in South Africa and is now widely used worldwide to refer to him.

What was Gandhi's main philosophy?

Gandhi's main philosophy was Satyagraha, meaning "truth-force" or "soul-force," which he used to describe his nonviolent resistance. It advocated for achieving political and social goals through civil disobedience, truth, non-injury, and love.

Where did Gandhi first practice nonviolent resistance?

Gandhi first effectively employed and honed his philosophy of nonviolent resistance during his 21 years in South Africa, where he campaigned for civil rights for Indians facing discrimination.

What was the Dandi Salt March?

The Dandi Salt March, also known as the Salt Satyagraha, was a 400 km (250 mi) nonviolent protest led by Gandhi in 1930. It challenged the British-imposed salt tax, symbolizing India's broader resistance to British rule, and galvanized nationwide support for independence.

Why was Gandhi assassinated?

Gandhi was assassinated on 30 January 1948 by Nathuram Godse, a militant Hindu nationalist. Godse believed Gandhi had been too accommodating towards Pakistan and Indian Muslims during the partition of India, especially concerning the payment of cash assets to Pakistan and the protection of Muslims in Delhi.

What is Gandhi Jayanti?

Gandhi Jayanti is a national holiday in India observed on 2 October each year, celebrating Mahatma Gandhi's birthday. It is also recognized globally as the International Day of Nonviolence.

What was the Jallianwala Bagh massacre?

The Jallianwala Bagh massacre, also known as the Amritsar Massacre, was a horrific incident that occurred on 13 April 1919 in Amritsar, Punjab. British Indian Army troops, under Brigadier General R. E. H. Dyer, fired upon a large, unarmed, peaceful gathering of Indian civilians who were protesting against colonial rule, causing hundreds of deaths and injuries.

Why did the Jallianwala Bagh massacre happen?

A large crowd had gathered at Jallianwala Bagh to protest the arrest of pro-Indian independence leaders. Brigadier General R. E. H. Dyer, considering the gathering illegal, ordered his troops to fire on the unarmed crowd without warning, trapping them inside the walled garden.

What were the consequences of the Jallianwala Bagh massacre?

The massacre caused widespread outrage and a significant loss of faith in British intentions among the Indian populace. It led to a re-evaluation of British military tactics, though often inconsistently applied, and directly fueled the Non-Cooperation Movement, becoming a decisive step towards India's independence.

Has Britain apologized for the Jallianwala Bagh massacre?

Britain has never formally apologized for the Jallianwala Bagh massacre. However, in 2019, the UK government expressed "deep regret" for the incident.