The Global Conflagration: World War II (1939-1945)

Known across the globe as World War II, or the Second World War, and commonly abbreviated as WWII or WW2, this colossal conflict spanned from 1939 to 1945. It drew in the vast majority of the world's nations, encompassing all the then-recognized great powers, which coalesced into two formidable, opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis powers. This was truly a total war, directly engaging over 100 million military personnel from more than 30 countries. The principal combatants channeled their entire economic, industrial, and scientific might into the war effort, effectively blurring the traditional lines between civilian support and military objectives. A pivotal development was the significant role of aircraft, which facilitated strategic bombing campaigns against population centers and led to the only two instances of nuclear weapons being used in warfare. World War II remains, by a considerable margin, the deadliest conflict in human history, resulting in an estimated 70 to 85 million fatalities, with civilians accounting for the majority. Millions perished not only from direct combat but also from widespread genocides, including the horrific Holocaust, devastating starvation, massacres, and rampant disease. In the aftermath of the Axis defeat, Germany and Japan faced occupation, and their leaders were subjected to international war crimes tribunals.

The Seeds of Conflict and Early European Dominance

While the precise catalysts for World War II are still debated among historians, a confluence of contributing factors undoubtedly set the stage. These included regional conflicts such as the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, the Spanish Civil War, the Second Sino-Japanese War, and various Soviet–Japanese border clashes, all exacerbated by escalating European tensions that had simmered since the conclusion of World War I. The war is generally understood to have commenced on 1 September 1939, when Nazi Germany, under the command of Adolf Hitler, launched its invasion of Poland. In a swift response, the United Kingdom and France declared war on Germany on 3 September. Prior to this, in August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union had secretly signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, which included provisions for the partition of Poland and the delineation of their respective "spheres of influence" across Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Romania. Over the period from late 1939 to early 1941, through a series of rapid military campaigns and strategic treaties, Germany successfully conquered or established control over much of continental Europe. It solidified its Axis alliance with Italy and Japan, with other nations joining later. Following the initial campaigns in North Africa and East Africa, and the dramatic fall of France in mid-1940, the war primarily continued between the European Axis powers and the British Empire. This phase included intense fighting in the Balkans, the crucial aerial Battle of Britain, the sustained bombing of the UK known as the Blitz, and the prolonged naval struggle of the Battle of the Atlantic. A major turning point came on 22 June 1941, when Germany spearheaded the European Axis powers in a massive invasion of the Soviet Union, thereby opening the Eastern Front—which would become the largest land theater of war in human history.

Global Expansion and the Turning Tide

Meanwhile, in Asia, Japan, driven by its ambition to dominate the entire Asia and Pacific region, had been embroiled in a conflict with the Republic of China since 1937. In a dramatic escalation, December 1941 saw Japan launch near-simultaneous offensives against American and British territories across Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific, most notably a devastating attack on the US fleet at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. This act directly led to the United States declaring war on Japan, prompting the European Axis powers to declare war on the United States in a show of solidarity. Initially, Japan rapidly seized control of vast areas of the western Pacific, but its seemingly unstoppable advances were decisively halted in 1942 after its critical defeat at the Battle of Midway. Concurrently, Germany and Italy suffered significant setbacks in North Africa and, famously, at Stalingrad in the Soviet Union. The year 1943 marked a crucial turning point, characterized by a series of devastating German defeats on the Eastern Front, the successful Allied invasions of Sicily and the Italian mainland, and intensified Allied offensives across the Pacific. These critical setbacks collectively stripped the Axis powers of their strategic initiative, forcing them into a protracted retreat on all fronts. By 1944, the Western Allies had launched their monumental invasion of German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union systematically regained its lost territories and began its inexorable push towards Germany and its allies. Throughout 1944 and 1945, Japan faced severe reversals on mainland Asia, as the Allies successfully crippled the Japanese Navy and captured key islands across the western Pacific.

The War's Culmination and a New World Order

The war in Europe reached its conclusion with the liberation of German-occupied territories and the coordinated invasion of Germany by both the Western Allies and the Soviet Union. This culminated in the dramatic fall of Berlin to Soviet troops, Adolf Hitler's suicide, and Germany's unconditional surrender on 8 May 1945. In the Pacific, following the Allies' Potsdam Declaration on 26 July 1945, which outlined terms for Japanese surrender, Japan's refusal to accept these terms led to an unprecedented event. The United States dropped the first atomic bomb on the Japanese city of Hiroshima on 6 August, followed by a second on Nagasaki on 9 August. Faced with the imminent threat of an Allied invasion of the Japanese archipelago, the terrifying possibility of additional atomic bombings, and the Soviet Union's declaration of war against Japan on the eve of invading Manchuria, Japan announced its intention to surrender on 15 August, formally signing the surrender document on 2 September 1945. This act solidified total victory for the Allies in Asia and brought World War II to its definitive end. The aftermath of World War II profoundly reshaped the political landscape and social fabric of the entire globe. The United Nations (UN) was established to foster international cooperation and prevent future conflicts, with the victorious great powers—China, France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States—assuming permanent seats on its Security Council. The Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the nearly half-century-long Cold War. In the wake of Europe's devastation, the influence of its traditional great powers waned significantly, which in turn triggered a wave of decolonization across Africa and Asia. Most countries whose industries had been ravaged by the war embarked on extensive programs of economic recovery and expansion. Furthermore, political and economic integration, particularly within Europe, began as a conscious effort to forestall future hostilities, reconcile pre-war enmities, and forge a new sense of common identity.

The Occupation of Greece During World War II

The occupation of Greece by the Axis Powers, locally known as I Katochi (Greek: Η Κατοχή, lit. 'the occupation'), commenced in April 1941. This followed Nazi Germany's invasion of the Kingdom of Greece, an intervention aimed at supporting its ally, Fascist Italy, which had been engaged in war with Allied Greece since October 1940. By June 1941, with the strategic conquest of Crete completed, the entirety of Greece found itself under Axis control. The occupation of the mainland persisted until early October 1944, when Germany and its ally Bulgaria were compelled to withdraw under mounting Allied pressure. However, German garrisons maintained control over Crete and several other Aegean islands for a longer period, finally surrendering these last strongholds in May and June 1945, well after the general end of World War II in Europe.

From Italian Invasion to German Blitzkrieg

Fascist Italy had initially launched its invasion of Greece in October 1940, declaring war in an attempt to assert dominance in the Mediterranean. However, to the surprise of many, the resilient Hellenic Army managed to push back the invading Italian forces, driving them into neighboring Albania, which was then an Italian protectorate. This unexpected setback prompted Nazi Germany to intervene on behalf of its beleaguered ally in southern Europe. While the majority of the Hellenic Army remained deployed on the Albanian front, valiantly fending off relentless Italian counter-attacks, Germany launched a rapid and devastating Blitzkrieg campaign in April 1941. With this swift assault, and the subsequent conquest of Crete, Greece was ultimately defeated and completely occupied by June of that year. The legitimate Greek government was forced into exile, and an Axis collaborationist puppet government was established within the country. Greece's territory was then carved into occupation zones administered by the Axis powers. The Germans took charge of the most strategically important regions, including the capital Athens, the major northern city of Thessaloniki, and the crucial Aegean Islands. Other parts of the country were allocated to Germany's partners, Italy and Bulgaria, each imposing their own administrative structures.

The Devastating Impact of Occupation

The occupation brought catastrophic consequences for Greece, leading to the ruin of its economy and inflicting terrible hardships upon the civilian population. The country's infrastructure suffered immense destruction: an estimated 80% of its industry was destroyed, 28% of its general infrastructure, a staggering 90% of its ports, roads, railways, and bridges, and 25% of its forests and other natural resources. The human toll was equally devastating, with an estimated 7% to 11% of Greece's citizens losing their lives. In Athens alone, over 40,000 civilians succumbed to starvation, a direct result of Axis exploitation and blockades. Tens of thousands more died from brutal reprisals carried out by Nazi forces and their collaborators. The Jewish population of Greece, a vibrant and ancient community, was almost entirely eradicated. Of its pre-war population of approximately 75,000 to 77,000, only about 11,000 to 12,000 survived, largely by joining the resistance movements or through being hidden by courageous individuals. Most of those who perished were deported to the infamous Auschwitz concentration camp from German-controlled territories, while those in Thrace, under Bulgarian occupation, were sent to Treblinka. Initially, the Italians did not deport Jews living in the territories they controlled, but once the Germans took over these areas, the Jewish communities there also faced deportation and extermination.

Resistance and the Road to Civil War

Amidst this immense suffering, the Greek Resistance began to coalesce and take shape. These nascent resistance groups launched daring guerrilla attacks against the occupying powers, engaged in fierce combat with the collaborationist Security Battalions, and established vital espionage networks to aid the Allied cause. However, by late 1943, internal divisions began to surface, leading to conflicts between the various resistance factions themselves. When the liberation of the Greek mainland finally arrived in October 1944, Greece found itself in a precarious state of deep political polarization, a situation that tragically soon escalated into the outbreak of the Greek Civil War. This subsequent civil war inadvertently provided an opportunity for many prominent Nazi collaborators to evade punishment for their actions, often due to their fervent anti-communism. In a grim twist of fate, some even managed to ascend to positions of influence, becoming part of the ruling class in post-war Greece following the communist defeat. The Greek Resistance, despite its internal struggles, inflicted significant casualties on the Axis forces, reportedly killing 21,087 soldiers (including 17,536 Germans, 2,739 Italians, and 1,532 Bulgarians) and capturing 6,463 (2,102 Germans, 2,109 Italians, and 2,252 Bulgarians). This came at a heavy cost, with 20,650 Greek partisans losing their lives, and an unknown number captured and often executed.

Frequently Asked Questions About World War II and the Occupation of Greece

What was World War II?

World War II (WWII) was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, involving the vast majority of the world's countries, including all the great powers, grouped into two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis powers. It was the deadliest conflict in human history.

When did World War II start and end?

World War II generally began on 1 September 1939 with Nazi Germany's invasion of Poland, and officially ended on 2 September 1945 with Japan's formal surrender.

Who were the main combatants in World War II?

The main combatants were the Allied powers (primarily the United Kingdom, United States, Soviet Union, China, and France) and the Axis powers (primarily Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial Japan).

How many people died in World War II?

World War II was the deadliest conflict in history, resulting in an estimated 70 to 85 million fatalities, with a majority being civilians. Deaths were caused by combat, genocides (like the Holocaust), starvation, massacres, and disease.

What role did air power and nuclear weapons play?

Aircraft played a major role, enabling strategic bombing campaigns against cities. WWII also saw the only two uses of nuclear weapons in warfare, when the United States dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945.

What were the long-term consequences of World War II?

The war profoundly changed global politics and social structures. It led to the formation of the United Nations, the rise of the United States and the Soviet Union as superpowers and the start of the Cold War, the decolonization of Africa and Asia, and efforts towards European political and economic integration.

When did the Axis occupation of Greece begin and end?

The occupation began in April 1941 after Germany invaded, assisting Italy. The mainland occupation ended in October 1944, but German garrisons remained on Crete and other Aegean islands until May and June 1945.

Which Axis powers occupied Greece?

Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Bulgaria occupied Greece. Germany administered the most strategic regions, including Athens and Thessaloniki, while Italy and Bulgaria controlled other areas.

What was the impact of the occupation on Greece?

The occupation devastated the Greek economy, destroying much of its industry and infrastructure. It led to widespread famine, resulting in tens of thousands of deaths from starvation and reprisals. The Jewish population of Greece was almost entirely annihilated.

What was the Greek Resistance?

The Greek Resistance comprised various groups that formed to fight against the Axis occupying powers. They launched guerrilla attacks, engaged in espionage, and fought against collaborationist forces, though they also experienced internal conflicts.