A consul was the highest elected magistrate in the Roman Republic, which lasted from around 509 BC until 27 BC. This position represented the pinnacle of Roman political ambition and was seen as the second-most prestigious role in the cursus honorum—the traditional hierarchy of public offices pursued by Roman politicians—surpassed only by the office of censor. Serving as consul was a highly sought-after achievement, marking a critical step in a Roman statesman's career.
Each year, two consuls were elected by the Centuriate Assembly, a voting body composed primarily of the Roman citizen-soldiery, who selected candidates based on a complex system weighted in favor of the elite classes. These two consuls served concurrently for one-year terms. While in Rome, they alternated monthly in holding the fasces—a symbol of authority that signified who had the right to preside over the state's affairs and command military forces during their respective term. This arrangement allowed both consuls to share executive power but ensured that only one held supreme imperium at any given time.
The dual consulship structure was a deliberate safeguard designed to prevent the concentration of political power in a single individual—a cornerstone of republican ideology that aimed to avoid a return to monarchy, specifically the despotic rule once held by Rome’s early kings. To reinforce this balance, each consul had the authority to veto the decisions or actions of the other, a mechanism that allowed mutual oversight and prevented unilateral rule.
Why were there always two consuls?
This was rooted in republican checks and balances: having two consuls created a built-in system of restraint to ensure that no single man could dominate the government as the kings had done before the Republic was established.
With the rise of the Roman Empire in 27 BC under Augustus—often recognized as the Republic’s transformation into an autocratic regime—the consulship lost much of its former power and significance. Although the institution remained as a vestige of the Republic, it became largely ceremonial. Emperors frequently assumed the consulship themselves or bestowed it upon favored individuals, but real political and military authority now resided exclusively with the Emperor, who held ultimate imperium and control over state matters.
Did the consulship continue after the Republic?
Yes, the title continued under the Empire, but it served mainly as a symbolic role honoring Rome’s republican traditions, with actual governing authority concentrated fully in the Emperor’s hands.
In summary, while the Roman consulship began as the highest office in a robust republican system designed to prevent tyranny, it evolved into a figurehead position as imperial rule took hold. The story of the consulship reflects both the ingenuity of Rome’s political architecture and the eventual shift from citizen-led governance to centralized imperial rule.