Stepan Bandera, Ukrainian soldier and politician (d. 1959)

Stepan Andriyovych Bandera (Ukrainian: Степа́н Андрі́йович Банде́ра; IPA: [steˈpɑn ɐnˈdʲrʲijowɪt͡ʃ bɐnˈdɛrɐ]; Polish: Stepan Andrijowycz Bandera; born 1 January 1909 – died 15 October 1959) was a prominent and highly controversial Ukrainian political figure and a leading theorist within the ultranationalist movement. He rose to become a key leader and ideologist of the militant, far-right Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN), an organization frequently associated with political violence and widely regarded for its involvement in various terrorist activities during the interwar period and World War II.

Early Life and Political Awakening in Galicia

Born into the family of a Greek-Catholic priest in Staryi Uhryniv, located in the historical region of Galicia, which at the time was part of the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria within the Austro-Hungarian Empire, young Bandera's formative years were shaped by a period of intense national awakening. Galicia, a historically diverse and ethnically complex region, became a focal point for Ukrainian nationalist aspirations following the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in the wake of World War I. This disintegration led to the brief, albeit impactful, existence of the West Ukrainian People's Republic. However, this nascent state was short-lived, as the subsequent Polish–Ukrainian War of 1918–1919 resulted in eastern Galicia's integration into the Second Polish Republic.

It was during this turbulent interwar period that Bandera's nationalist views intensified and became increasingly radicalized. Facing the perceived suppression of Ukrainian identity and political autonomy under Polish rule, he sought opportunities to advance the cause of Ukrainian independence. After being denied permission by Polish authorities to pursue studies in Czechoslovakia, he enrolled at the Lviv Polytechnic (now Lviv National Polytechnic University). There, he became deeply involved in and subsequently organized various clandestine Ukrainian nationalist organizations, laying the groundwork for his future leadership within the OUN.

Escalation of Activities and Imprisonment

Bandera's radicalization culminated in his orchestration of high-profile political assassinations targeting Polish officials. Most notably, he was the mastermind behind the 1934 assassination of Bronisław Pieracki, Poland's Minister of the Interior. Pieracki was seen by Ukrainian nationalists as a symbol of Polish pacification policies and the suppression of Ukrainian cultural and political life. For this act, Bandera was sentenced to death, though his sentence was later commuted to life imprisonment, a common practice in Poland at the time. His imprisonment continued until September 1939, when the joint German–Soviet invasion of Poland, marking the beginning of World War II, led to the collapse of Polish state authority. Following his release, Bandera moved to Kraków, then under German occupation, where he continued his political activities.

World War II: Alliance, Betrayal, and Imprisonment by Nazis

During the early stages of World War II, Bandera and his faction of the OUN, often referred to as OUN-B (B for Bandera), sought to leverage the conflict between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union to achieve Ukrainian independence. He actively cultivated relationships within German military circles, which initially appeared sympathetic to Ukrainian nationalist aspirations as a potential means to destabilize the Soviet Union. Bandera organized OUN expeditionary groups, anticipating the German invasion of the Soviet Union. On 30 June 1941, shortly after Nazi Germany launched Operation Barbarossa, Bandera's followers, including the OUN-B's leadership, proclaimed the restoration of Ukrainian statehood in Lviv. This proclamation, which pledged cooperation with Nazi Germany, was intended to establish an independent Ukrainian state. However, the Nazi regime had no intention of allowing a truly independent Ukraine; their policy was one of exploitation and subjugation.

Because Bandera refused to rescind this unilateral declaration of independence, he was swiftly arrested by the Gestapo on 5 July 1941. He was initially placed under house arrest and later, between 1942 and 1943, imprisoned in the Sachsenhausen concentration camp, specifically in the special section for political prisoners (Zellenbau). This period of incarceration demonstrates Germany's ultimate disinterest in a sovereign Ukrainian state, viewing Ukrainian nationalists merely as tools for their broader geopolitical objectives.

Post-War Activities and Assassination

As Germany's military fortunes rapidly declined in 1944, facing the relentless advance of Allied armies, Bandera was released from Sachsenhausen. This release was a strategic move by the desperate Nazi regime, hoping Bandera's influence could be instrumental in organizing Ukrainian resistance and deterring the advancing Soviet forces. Following his release, Bandera resumed his leadership role within the Ukrainian nationalist movement. He helped establish the headquarters of the re-established Ukrainian Supreme Liberation Council (UHVR), an underground political body aimed at coordinating Ukrainian anti-Soviet resistance. After the war, he settled with his family in West Germany, which became a hub for anti-Soviet émigré movements during the Cold War. He continued to lead the OUN-B and actively collaborated with several anti-communist organizations, such as the Anti-Bolshevik Bloc of Nations (ABN), which aimed to liberate non-Russian peoples from Soviet domination. Furthermore, it is a documented fact that Bandera and his organization maintained covert contact and collaboration with Western intelligence agencies, including British intelligence, providing valuable information on Soviet activities and supporting clandestine operations.

Fourteen years after the end of World War II, Stepan Bandera's life came to an abrupt end. On 15 October 1959, he was assassinated in Munich, West Germany. Subsequent investigations confirmed that he was poisoned with cyanide by a KGB agent, Bogdan Stashinsky, acting under direct orders from the Soviet Union, which viewed Bandera as a significant threat to its control over Ukraine.

Legacy and Ongoing Controversy

Stepan Bandera remains one of the most polarizing and fiercely debated figures in modern Ukrainian history, with his legacy deeply dividing public opinion both within Ukraine and internationally. This controversy was notably highlighted on 22 January 2010, when the outgoing President of Ukraine, Viktor Yushchenko, posthumously awarded Bandera the title of "Hero of Ukraine." This award immediately triggered widespread condemnation from various international bodies and nations, including the European Parliament, Russia, Poland, and numerous Jewish politicians and organizations. Critics denounced the decision, citing Bandera's documented involvement in extremist activities and his organization's complicity in wartime atrocities.

The incoming president, Viktor Yanukovych, promptly declared the award illegal, primarily on the grounds that Bandera had never been a citizen of independent Ukraine, a necessary legal stipulation for receiving the honor. This declaration was subsequently upheld by a court decision in April 2010, and in January 2011, the award was officially annulled. Further illustrating the divisive nature of his legacy, a proposal to re-confer the award on Bandera was decisively rejected by the Ukrainian parliament in August 2019.

The contrasting perspectives on Bandera can be summarized as follows:

• Some Ukrainians venerate him as a national liberator and a heroic figure who tirelessly fought for an independent Ukraine against the oppressive regimes of the Soviet Union, interwar Poland, and Nazi Germany. They view his actions through the lens of a desperate struggle for national self-determination.
• Conversely, many other Ukrainians, along with political leaders and historians in Poland and Russia, vehemently condemn him as a fascist ideologue and a war criminal. They point to the OUN's involvement, often under Bandera's leadership or ideological influence, in horrific atrocities. These include a significant degree of responsibility for the massacres of tens of thousands of Polish civilians during the Volyn (Volhynian) Massacres of 1943–1944 and partial complicity in the Holocaust in Ukraine, particularly through the involvement of OUN members in pogroms and collaboration with Nazi einsatzgruppen.

Frequently Asked Questions About Stepan Bandera

Who was Stepan Bandera?

Stepan Bandera was a prominent Ukrainian ultranationalist political figure, a key leader and ideologist of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN), particularly its militant Bandera faction (OUN-B).

What was the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN)?

The OUN was a far-right, ultranationalist political organization active from the late 1920s, advocating for an independent Ukrainian state through revolutionary and often violent means. It later split into two factions, OUN-B (Bandera's faction) and OUN-M (Melnyk's faction).

Why is Stepan Bandera a controversial figure?

Bandera is controversial due to his leadership of the OUN, which engaged in political violence, collaborated with Nazi Germany at the beginning of Operation Barbarossa, and is implicated in wartime atrocities, including massacres of Polish civilians (Volyn Massacres) and complicity in elements of the Holocaust in Ukraine. Conversely, some Ukrainians view him as a freedom fighter against Soviet, Polish, and Nazi oppression.

Was Bandera a Nazi collaborator?

Initially, Bandera and the OUN-B sought an alliance with Nazi Germany, believing it would lead to Ukrainian independence. They even proclaimed Ukrainian statehood in Lviv in June 1941, pledging cooperation. However, the Nazis quickly arrested Bandera and other OUN leaders because they did not want a truly independent Ukraine, leading to Bandera's imprisonment in a concentration camp. Despite this, the OUN's initial collaboration and the involvement of some of its members in atrocities alongside the Nazis contribute to the accusations of collaboration.

How did Stepan Bandera die?

Stepan Bandera was assassinated on 15 October 1959 in Munich, West Germany. He was poisoned with cyanide by Bogdan Stashinsky, an agent of the Soviet KGB, acting under direct orders from Moscow.

Was Stepan Bandera awarded "Hero of Ukraine"?

Yes, he was posthumously awarded the title "Hero of Ukraine" by President Viktor Yushchenko in 2010. However, this award was highly controversial and was subsequently declared illegal and officially annulled in 2011 by President Viktor Yanukovych and a court decision, primarily because Bandera was never a citizen of independent Ukraine.