The Republic of Iraq: A Land of Ancient Civilizations and Diverse Heritage

The Republic of Iraq (Arabic: ٱلْعِرَاق, romanized: al-ʿIrāq; Kurdish: عێراق, romanized: Êraq; officially Arabic: جُمْهُورِيَّة ٱلْعِرَاق Jumhūriīyah al-ʿIrāq; Kurdish: کۆماری عێراق, romanized: Komarî Êraq) is a strategically important country located in Western Asia. Its geographical position is defined by its extensive borders, sharing landmass with Turkey to the north, Iran to the east, the Persian Gulf and Kuwait to the southeast, Saudi Arabia to the south, Jordan to the southwest, and Syria to the west. Baghdad, a city steeped in history and culture, serves as both the capital and the largest urban center of Iraq.

Iraq is renowned for its remarkable ethnic and cultural diversity. Its population of approximately 40 million citizens comprises a rich tapestry of ethnic groups, including Arabs, Kurds, Turkmens, Assyrians, Armenians, Yazidis, Persians, Shabakis, Sabian-Mandaeans, Circassians, and Kawliya. This human mosaic is complemented by an equally varied geography, ranging from vast deserts and fertile plains to mountainous regions and the unique Mesopotamian Marshes, which historically supported diverse wildlife. While the majority of Iraq's population adheres to Islam, the country formally recognizes and protects various other religious communities, including Christians, Yarsans, Yezidis, Zoroastrians, and Mandaeans. The official languages that facilitate communication and governance across this diverse nation are Arabic and Kurdish, alongside other regionally recognized languages such as English, Neo-Aramaic, Turkish, and Armenian.

A Journey Through Time: Mesopotamia, The Cradle of Civilization

The lands that today constitute Iraq hold an unparalleled place in human history, often referred to as Mesopotamia, which literally translates from Greek as the "Land Between the Rivers" (specifically, the Tigris and Euphrates rivers). This region, characterized by its extensive alluvial plains, became the crucible for some of the world's earliest and most influential civilizations and empires, emerging as early as the 6th millennium BC. Among these pioneering societies were Akkad, Babylon, and Assyria, but perhaps most notable was Sumer, widely regarded as the earliest known civilization.

Mesopotamia is globally celebrated as the "Cradle of Civilization" due to the groundbreaking innovations and discoveries that originated within its borders. It was here that humanity first began to systematically read and write, developing complex cuneiform scripts. Fundamental concepts of mathematics, the establishment of precise timekeeping systems, sophisticated calendars, the beginnings of astrology, and the codification of comprehensive law codes (such as the Code of Hammurabi) all trace their roots to this fertile crescent. Indeed, it was in ancient Mesopotamian cities like Uruk that mankind first learned to live in large urban centers under organized governments, laying the foundational principles for future societies.

Following the significant Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia, the city of Baghdad rose to prominence, becoming the illustrious capital and largest city of the mighty Abbasid Caliphate. During the period known as the Islamic Golden Age (roughly 8th to 13th centuries CE), Baghdad flourished, transforming into a preeminent cultural and intellectual hub of the world. Its academic institutions, most notably the House of Wisdom (Bayt al-Hikma), attracted scholars from across the globe, fostering advancements in science, medicine, philosophy, and mathematics, and solidifying Baghdad's worldwide reputation as a beacon of learning. However, this golden era was tragically interrupted in 1258 during the devastating Siege of Baghdad, when the city was largely destroyed by the Mongol Empire. This catastrophic event initiated a prolonged period of decline for the region, exacerbated by frequent plagues and the successive rule of various empires, which profoundly impacted its historical trajectory for many centuries.

Modern Iraq: From Mandate to Republic and Beyond

The formation of modern Iraq as a distinct political entity dates back to 1920. Following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire after World War I, the British Mandate of Mesopotamia was established under the authority of the League of Nations, effectively unifying three former Ottoman vilayets (provinces): Baghdad, Basra, and Mosul. A British-backed monarchy was subsequently established in 1921, with Faisal I of Iraq ascending to the throne. The Hashemite Kingdom of Iraq achieved full independence from the United Kingdom in 1932, joining the League of Nations as a sovereign state.

A significant turning point occurred in 1958 when the monarchy was overthrown in a military coup, leading to the establishment of the Iraqi Republic. For a substantial period, from 1968 until 2003, Iraq was governed by the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party. This era was marked by several major conflicts, notably the protracted Iran-Iraq War, which commenced in 1980 with Iraq's invasion of Iran. This devastating conflict, lasting for nearly eight years, concluded in a costly stalemate, resulting in immense human and economic losses for both nations.

In 2003, a multinational coalition led by the United States launched an invasion that ultimately led to the removal of Saddam Hussein's Ba'ath Party from power. This pivotal event ushered in a new political phase, culminating in multi-party parliamentary elections held in 2005. The primary United States military presence in Iraq concluded in 2011. However, the subsequent years saw a continuation and intensification of the Iraqi insurgency, particularly as conflict from the Syrian civil war spilled across the border. A major milestone in combating extremist groups was achieved on 9 December 2017, when then-Iraqi Prime Minister Haider al-Abadi officially declared victory over ISIL (Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant), announcing the full liberation of Iraq's borders with Syria from Islamic State militants. Despite this declaration, remnants of ISIL continue to conduct an ongoing insurgency, posing persistent security challenges within the country.

Iraq's Governance and International Standing

Iraq operates as a federal parliamentary republic, a system designed to distribute power and ensure representation. The President serves as the head of state, symbolizing national unity, while the Prime Minister holds the position of head of government, leading the executive branch. The Iraqi constitution establishes a bicameral legislative system, comprising two deliberative bodies: the Council of Representatives, which is the main legislative assembly, and the Council of Union, representing regional interests. Furthermore, the judiciary is constitutionally guaranteed to be free and independent, ensuring a separation of powers from both the executive and legislative branches.

Internationally, Iraq is recognized as an emerging middle power, distinguished by its strategic geographical location and significant natural resources. It is a founding member of numerous vital international organizations, underscoring its commitment to global cooperation and regional stability. These include the United Nations (UN), the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), the Arab League, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Since gaining independence, Iraq's political history has been characterized by alternating periods of notable economic and military growth, interspersed with phases of significant political and economic instability, reflecting the complex dynamics of the region and its internal challenges.

The Gulf War: A Defining Conflict of the Late 20th Century

The Gulf War, also known as the First Gulf War, was a major international armed campaign waged by a United States-led coalition of 35 countries against Iraq. This decisive military response was precipitated by Iraq's invasion and subsequent annexation of its smaller, oil-rich neighbor, Kuwait.

Why did Iraq invade Kuwait?

On 2 August 1990, the Iraqi military launched a full-scale invasion of Kuwait, achieving complete occupation within just two days. Various factors are widely believed to have motivated this aggressive act. One key speculation points to Iraq's dire financial situation following the Iran-Iraq War; Iraq owed Kuwait over US$14 billion, which had been borrowed to finance its extensive military efforts during that protracted conflict. Another significant factor was Kuwait's sustained surge in petroleum production levels, which, by exceeding its mandatory OPEC quota throughout much of the 1980s, contributed to keeping international oil prices down. Iraq interpreted Kuwait's refusal to decrease its oil output as a deliberate act of economic aggression and a direct threat to its own revenue-dependent economy.

How did the international community react to the invasion?

The invasion of Kuwait was met with immediate and widespread international condemnation. The United Nations Security Council swiftly imposed comprehensive economic sanctions against Iraq in response. In a display of unified resolve, prominent global leaders such as British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and American President George H. W. Bush took decisive action, deploying troops and military equipment into Saudi Arabia and urging other nations to contribute forces to the region. This call for collective security led to the formation of an unprecedented U.S.-led coalition, which swiftly became the largest military alliance assembled since World War II.

The overwhelming majority of the coalition's military forces originated from the United States, complemented by substantial contributions from Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom, and Egypt, which were the largest lead-up contributors in that specific order. Notably, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia collectively bore a significant portion of the financial burden, contributing approximately US$32 billion towards the total estimated cost of US$60 billion for the military operation.

What was the course of the military campaign?

The initial phase of the conflict, aimed at expelling Iraqi forces from Kuwait, commenced with an intensive aerial and naval bombardment on 17 January 1991. This sustained air campaign lasted for five weeks, systematically targeting Iraqi military infrastructure. During this period, Iraq attempted to disrupt the coalition's unity by launching Scud missiles into Israel. The Iraqi leadership's intent was to provoke a military response from Israel, which they anticipated would compel the coalition's Muslim member states to withdraw, thereby jeopardizing the alliance against Iraq. However, this strategy failed to achieve its desired effect, as Israel, under immense diplomatic pressure, refrained from retaliating. Iraq also launched Scud missiles at coalition targets stationed within Saudi Arabia.

The aerial bombardment was followed by a decisive ground assault, code-named Operation Desert Storm, which began on 24 February. Coalition forces rapidly advanced into Iraqi-occupied Kuwait. The offensive proved to be an overwhelming victory for the coalition, swiftly liberating Kuwait and then advancing strategically past the Iraq-Kuwait border into Iraqi territory. Remarkably, just 100 hours after the ground campaign commenced, the coalition declared a unilateral ceasefire, having achieved its primary objectives. Aerial and ground combat operations were geographically confined to Iraq, Kuwait, and specific areas straddling the Iraq-Saudi Arabia border, minimizing wider regional escalation.

What made the Gulf War historically significant?

The Gulf War marked several historical firsts and notable aspects. It was pioneering for its introduction of live news broadcasts directly from the front lines of the battle, primarily popularized by the American network CNN, which brought the realities of modern warfare into homes globally. The conflict also earned the informal moniker "Video Game War," largely due to the daily broadcast of synchronized, almost real-time images from cameras mounted onboard American bombers during Operation Desert Storm, offering an unprecedented visual perspective of air combat. Furthermore, the Gulf War holds a unique place in American military history for encompassing three of the largest tank battles ever fought by U.S. forces, demonstrating the scale and intensity of the armored engagements.