The Hundred Years' War: A Defining European Conflict (1337-1453)

The Hundred Years' War, known in French as La guerre de Cent Ans and in Picard as Dgère d'Un Chint Ans, was not a single, continuous conflict but rather a protracted series of armed engagements and intermittent truces spanning 116 years (1337–1453). This monumental struggle primarily involved the powerful kingdoms of England and France during the tumultuous Late Middle Ages, fundamentally reshaping the political, social, and military landscape of Western Europe.

Origins and Underlying Causes

At its core, the war originated from deeply rooted dynastic disputes over the succession to the French throne. The English royal House of Plantagenet, specifically King Edward III, asserted a claim through his mother, Isabella, who was the daughter of the preceding French king, Philip IV. However, the French nobility invoked the Salic Law, which traditionally excluded succession through the female line, favoring the House of Valois under Philip VI. Beyond this immediate dynastic quarrel, the conflict evolved into a broader geopolitical power struggle that drew in various factions and regions from across Western Europe. This complex interplay of feudal allegiances, territorial ambitions (such as control over Gascony), and economic interests (like the lucrative wool trade in Flanders) fueled the hostilities. Crucially, the war also saw the nascent stirrings of national identity on both sides, transforming loyalty from feudal lords to the emerging concepts of English and French nationhood.

A Conflict of Unprecedented Scale and Lasting Impact

Recognized as one of the most significant and transformative conflicts of the Middle Ages, the Hundred Years' War pitted five generations of kings from two rival dynasties against each other for control over what was then the largest and wealthiest kingdom in Western Europe. Its profound and lasting effects on European history are undeniable:

• Military Revolution: The war was a crucible for military innovation. Both sides developed advanced military technologies and tactics, moving away from purely feudal levies towards more professional, disciplined standing armies. The English longbow proved devastating against traditional cavalry formations, while the French rapidly adopted and improved artillery, such as bombards, which permanently altered siege warfare and battlefield engagements. The necessity for these new military structures led to more efficient systems of conscription and taxation.
• Decline of Chivalry: While chivalric ideals reached their zenith during the early phases of the conflict, the brutal effectiveness of new weaponry against armored knights, particularly at battles like Crécy, Poitiers, and Agincourt, led to a gradual decline in the traditional knightly class and their code of conduct.
• Rise of National Identity and Centralized States: The shared experience of prolonged conflict fostered stronger, more distinct national identities in both England and France. Populations increasingly identified themselves as English or French, rather than simply subjects of a local lord. This emergent nationalism, coupled with the immense financial demands of the war, compelled monarchs to consolidate power, leading to more centralized governments and the gradual rise of both countries as significant global powers.
• Shaped Monarchies: The war irrevocably separated the previously intertwined French and English monarchies, ensuring their distinct future paths.

Phases and Nomenclature

The term "Hundred Years' War" itself was a later historiographical periodization, adopted by 19th-century historians to conveniently encompass a series of related conflicts under a single umbrella, thereby constructing the longest military conflict in European history. For analytical clarity, the war is commonly divided into three distinct phases, each separated by periods of truce:

The Edwardian War (1337–1360):

Characterized by significant English victories, notably at the Battle of Crécy (1346) and the Battle of Poitiers (1356), which showcased the devastating effectiveness of the English longbow and led to the capture of King John II of France. This phase concluded with the Treaty of Brétigny.

The Caroline War (1369–1389):

Saw a resurgence of French power under King Charles V and his brilliant constable, Bertrand du Guesclin, who employed Fabian tactics to regain much of the territory lost to the English.

The Lancastrian War (1415–1453):

Marked by the renewed English offensive under Henry V, culminating in the Battle of Agincourt, and the eventual expulsion of the English from most of France, largely due to the inspirational leadership of Joan of Arc and the shift of Burgundian allegiance.

Each side drew numerous allies into the complex web of conflict. While English forces initially achieved significant military supremacy, the House of Valois ultimately succeeded in retaining control over France, consolidating its authority and ensuring the long-term separation of the French and English crowns.

Henry V: England's Warrior King and the Agincourt Campaign

Henry V (16 September 1386 – 31 August 1422), often referred to as Henry of Monmouth, reigned as King of England from 1413 until his untimely death in 1422. Despite his relatively brief nine-year reign, Henry's unparalleled military successes against France during the Hundred Years' War elevated England to become one of the most formidable military powers in Europe. His exploits were famously immortalized in William Shakespeare's "Henriad" plays, particularly "Henry V," solidifying his enduring legacy as one of medieval England's greatest warrior-kings and a symbol of national pride.

Early Life and Ascension to the Throne

Even before his coronation, Henry gained invaluable military and administrative experience. During the tumultuous reign of his father, Henry IV, he actively participated in campaigns to suppress internal rebellions. This included fighting against the resilient Welsh during the revolt of Owain Glyndŵr, a significant national uprising, and confronting the powerful aristocratic Percy family of Northumberland at the decisive Battle of Shrewsbury in 1403, where he displayed considerable bravery and was wounded. As King Henry IV's health progressively declined, Prince Henry assumed an increasingly prominent role in England's governance. However, the father-son relationship was often fraught with tension, leading to periods of political conflict and disagreement, a dynamic famously embellished in popular legend. Following his father's death in 1413, Henry definitively assumed control of the country, swiftly moving to assert the long-standing English claim to the French throne, a claim inherited from the Plantagenet line.

The Agincourt Campaign and the Treaty of Troyes

In 1415, Henry V launched a bold invasion of France, reigniting the active phase of the Hundred Years' War. His military endeavors culminated in his most celebrated triumph, the Battle of Agincourt, fought on 25 October 1415. Against overwhelming numerical odds, Henry's forces achieved a stunning victory, primarily due to the tactical brilliance of the English longbowmen and the muddy battlefield conditions that hampered the heavily armored French cavalry. This catastrophic defeat decimated the French nobility and profoundly impacted the course of the war.

Capitalizing on deep political divisions within France—specifically the bitter civil war between the Armagnac and Burgundian factions—Henry systematically conquered large portions of the kingdom. This campaign resulted in the English occupation of Normandy, a strategically vital region, for the first time since a brief period of English control between 1345 and 1360. After months of intense negotiation with the mentally incapacitated King Charles VI of France, the landmark Treaty of Troyes was signed in 1420. This treaty was a diplomatic triumph for Henry V, recognizing him as the regent and, crucially, the heir apparent to the French throne, effectively disinheriting Charles VI's own son, the Dauphin (later Charles VII). To cement this unprecedented alliance, Henry was subsequently married to Charles VI's daughter, Catherine of Valois. At this juncture, the formation of a unified Anglo-French monarchy, under the single person of Henry V, seemed not merely plausible but almost inevitable, potentially altering the entire geopolitical map of Europe for centuries to come. However, this grand vision was tragically cut short when Henry V died two years later, on 31 August 1422, at the age of 35. He was succeeded by his only child, the infant Henry VI, whose minority would plunge England into further challenges regarding its French claims.

Frequently Asked Questions about the Hundred Years' War and Henry V

• What was the primary cause of the Hundred Years' War?

  The war primarily stemmed from a dynastic dispute over the succession to the French throne. England's King Edward III, a Plantagenet, claimed the French crown through his mother, Isabella, who was the daughter of the previous French king. The French nobility, however, invoked Salic Law, which prevented succession through the female line, supporting the House of Valois.

• How long did the Hundred Years' War last?

  While named the "Hundred Years' War," the conflict actually spanned 116 years, from 1337 to 1453. It was not continuous but comprised a series of distinct armed conflicts interspersed with periods of truce.

• What were the major military innovations that emerged from the Hundred Years' War?

  The war spurred significant advancements, including the widespread adoption and tactical mastery of the English longbow, which proved devastating against traditional cavalry. It also saw the increased use and development of artillery (like bombards) and the transition from feudal levies to more organized, professional standing armies.

• Why is Henry V considered one of England's greatest warrior-kings?

  Henry V's reputation is largely built on his extraordinary military successes against France during the Lancastrian phase of the Hundred Years' War, most notably his decisive victory at the Battle of Agincourt (1415). His strategic brilliance and leadership brought England close to conquering France and securing the French throne.

• What was the significance of the Treaty of Troyes (1420)?

  The Treaty of Troyes was a pivotal agreement that recognized Henry V as the regent and heir apparent to the French throne, effectively disinheriting the Dauphin (the rightful French heir). It also formalized Henry's marriage to Catherine of Valois, King Charles VI's daughter, paving the way for a potential Anglo-French union under a single monarch, though this was thwarted by Henry V's early death.