Robert E. Lee, American general and academic (d. 1870)

Robert Edward Lee (January 19, 1807 – October 12, 1870) stands as one of the most prominent and complex figures in American history, primarily recognized for his pivotal role as a Confederate general during the tumultuous American Civil War (1861-1865). Widely regarded for his exceptional military acumen, Lee was ultimately appointed as the General-in-Chief of the Armies of the Confederate States in the conflict's final months, a testament to his perceived indispensability.

His most significant command was the revered Army of Northern Virginia, the Confederacy's principal fighting force in the Eastern Theater. Lee led this formidable army from June 1862 until its final surrender in April 1865. Throughout the war, he cultivated a formidable reputation as a master tactician, demonstrating an uncanny ability to outmaneuver and defeat numerically superior Union forces on multiple occasions. This skill earned him profound admiration and reverence from his own officers and soldiers, fostering an intense loyalty within his ranks. Simultaneously, his strategic brilliance and daring battlefield maneuvers commanded the respect and even fear of his Union Army adversaries, who recognized the formidable challenge he posed.

Early Life and Distinguished Pre-War Service

Born into a distinguished Virginia family with a deep military heritage, Robert E. Lee was the son of Henry "Light Horse Harry" Lee III, a celebrated cavalry officer during the American Revolutionary War. This lineage undoubtedly instilled in him a strong sense of duty and honor.

Lee's military career began with exceptional promise. He graduated second in his class from the United States Military Academy at West Point in 1829, achieving the rare distinction of graduating without a single demerit. For 32 years prior to the Civil War, he served as an outstanding officer and highly skilled military engineer in the United States Army. His extensive pre-war assignments included significant work on river improvements, harbor defenses, and mapping across various regions of the United States, showcasing his engineering prowess.

His capabilities were further highlighted during the Mexican-American War (1846-1848), where he served with distinction under General Winfield Scott. Lee's exceptional reconnaissance skills and daring actions, including his instrumental role in guiding troops through challenging terrain, earned him three brevet promotions for gallantry and meritorious conduct. Following this, from 1852 to 1855, Lee served as the Superintendent of West Point, a critical role where he oversaw the education of future generations of American military leaders, some of whom would later become his opponents in the Civil War.

In his personal life, Lee married Mary Anna Custis Lee in 1831. Their union connected him directly to one of America's founding families, as Mary Anna was the great-granddaughter of Martha Washington, wife of the first U.S. President, George Washington. Their family home, Arlington House, stood as a symbol of this deep historical connection.

The Painful Choice: Secession and Early War Role

The outbreak of the American Civil War presented Robert E. Lee with an agonizing personal dilemma. Despite his profound personal desire for the preservation of the United States and his deep loyalty to the Union, his primary allegiance ultimately rested with his home state of Virginia. In April 1861, when the Richmond Convention formally declared Virginia's secession from the Union, Lee made the fateful decision to resign his commission from the United States Army.

This choice came despite a highly significant offer from President Abraham Lincoln's administration: command of the Union Army. Lee's refusal, driven by his unwavering commitment to his native state, underscored the profound sectional loyalties that tore the nation apart. For the initial year of the war, Lee served in less prominent combat roles, including campaigns in western Virginia, and notably as a senior military adviser to Confederate President Jefferson Davis. In this advisory capacity, he played a crucial role in organizing the defense of Richmond, the Confederate capital, showcasing his strategic foresight even before assuming field command.

Commanding the Army of Northern Virginia: Key Campaigns and Battles

Lee's true impact on the Civil War began in June 1862 when he assumed command of the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia during the critical Peninsula Campaign. This appointment followed the wounding of his predecessor, General Joseph E. Johnston, at the Battle of Seven Pines. Lee immediately adopted an aggressive, offensive strategy that would characterize much of his command.

• The Seven Days Battles (June-July 1862): Lee swiftly launched a series of counter-offensives against Union Major General George B. McClellan's Army of the Potomac, which was threatening Richmond. Through audacious maneuvers, Lee succeeded in driving McClellan away from the Confederate capital, effectively lifting the siege. While he failed to destroy McClellan's army, this campaign demonstrated Lee's willingness to take risks and secured Richmond for two more years.
• Second Battle of Bull Run (Manassas) (August 1862): Following the Seven Days, Lee decisively defeated a Union army under Major General John Pope at the Second Battle of Bull Run. This major victory cemented Lee's reputation and opened the path for his first invasion of the North.
• Maryland Campaign and Battle of Antietam (September 1862): Lee's invasion of Maryland aimed to relieve pressure on Virginia, gather supplies, and potentially influence the upcoming congressional elections in the North. This campaign culminated in the Battle of Antietam (also known as Sharpsburg), the single bloodiest day in American military history. Though tactically inconclusive due to heavy casualties on both sides and a lack of clear victor, Lee's exhausted army was forced to retreat back into Virginia, marking a strategic setback.
• Fredericksburg (December 1862) and Chancellorsville (May 1863): Lee achieved two stunning defensive victories against larger Union armies at Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville. At Chancellorsville, often considered his "perfect battle," Lee, with a smaller force, expertly divided his army to surprise and rout a portion of Major General Joseph Hooker's Union forces. However, this victory came at a significant cost: the mortal wounding of his brilliant corps commander, Lieutenant General Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson, an irreplaceable loss for the Confederacy.
• Gettysburg Campaign (July 1863): Bolstered by these victories, Lee launched his second major invasion of the North, aiming to shift the war's focus away from Virginia and potentially force a negotiated peace. This culminated in the Battle of Gettysburg, widely considered the turning point of the war. Over three brutal days, Lee's Army of Northern Virginia suffered a decisive defeat at the hands of Major General George Meade's Army of the Potomac, particularly following the disastrous frontal assault known as Pickett's Charge. This loss irrevocably ended the Confederacy's ability to launch major strategic offensives into Union territory.
• Bristoe Campaign (Fall 1863): A largely inconclusive series of maneuvers and minor engagements after Gettysburg, as both armies sought to regain strength and probe weaknesses.
• Overland Campaign and Siege of Petersburg (1864-1865): In the spring of 1864, General Ulysses S. Grant assumed command of all Union armies and personally took the field against Lee. Grant initiated the relentless Overland Campaign, engaging Lee in a series of bloody, attritional battles, including the Wilderness, Spotsylvania Court House, and Cold Harbor. While these battles resulted in immense casualties for both sides, Grant, unlike his predecessors, continually pressed southward, refusing to disengage after a stalemate. This led to the nine-month-long Siege of Petersburg, a brutal period of trench warfare that effectively cut off supply lines to Richmond.
• Appomattox Campaign and Surrender (April 1865): With Petersburg finally falling, Richmond was captured. Lee's exhausted and severely diminished army attempted a final escape westward but was cornered. On April 9, 1865, realizing the futility of further resistance and seeking to spare his men unnecessary suffering, Robert E. Lee honorably surrendered his Army of Northern Virginia to Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Court House, effectively ending the major fighting of the Civil War.

Post-War Life, Legacy, and Historical Evaluation

Following the war, Robert E. Lee sought to contribute to the healing of a fractured nation. In October 1865, he accepted the presidency of Washington College in Lexington, Virginia, which was later renamed Washington and Lee University in his honor. In this role, he championed reconciliation between the North and South, focusing on educating the next generation and promoting practical subjects that would help rebuild the devastated Southern economy. His leadership helped stabilize the institution and set a tone for moving forward.

While Lee publicly accepted the "extinction of slavery" as mandated by the Thirteenth Amendment, a critical outcome of the war, his views on racial equality for African Americans remained consistent with the prevailing attitudes of the era, and he opposed immediate social and political equality. This aspect of his legacy remains a subject of considerable historical debate and modern scrutiny.

After his death in 1870, Robert E. Lee quickly became a revered cultural icon in the American South, largely through the emergence of the "Lost Cause" narrative. This narrative often romanticized the Confederacy and portrayed Lee as a virtuous, almost saintly figure who fought gallantly against insurmountable odds. He is frequently hailed by many as one of the greatest military strategists and commanders in American history, particularly for his ability to inspire loyalty and achieve victories against numerically superior forces.

Strengths and Criticisms of Lee's Command

Lee's military genius is undeniable in many aspects:

• He consistently fought and won many battles against Union armies that often significantly outnumbered his own forces, demonstrating exceptional tactical skill and daring.
• He cultivated and relied upon a highly talented cohort of subordinate commanders, whose aggressive spirit and battlefield acumen were crucial to Confederate successes. Key figures included:
  • James Longstreet: Lee's "Old War Horse," a highly capable corps commander known for his stoicism and defensive prowess.
  • Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson: Renowned for his aggressive flank attacks and rapid marches, a truly indispensable asset until his death.
  • J.E.B. Stuart: The dashing cavalry commander, vital for reconnaissance and screening.

However, Lee's command has also faced significant criticism, particularly in light of the Confederacy's ultimate defeat and the immense cost of the war:

• His two major strategic offensives into Union territory – the Maryland Campaign (culminating in Antietam) and the Gettysburg Campaign – both ended in failure, failing to achieve their strategic objectives of breaking Northern will, gaining foreign intervention, or decisively crippling the Union war effort.
• His aggressive and often risky tactical approach, notably at Gettysburg, led to exceptionally high casualties for the Army of Northern Virginia. Given the Confederacy's inherent disadvantages in manpower and industrial capacity compared to the more populous and industrialized Union, such losses were often irreplaceable and hastened the South's eventual collapse. Critics argue that a more defensive or attrition-based strategy might have prolonged the war or yielded different outcomes for the Confederacy, though such a strategy was largely contrary to Lee's natural inclinations.

Frequently Asked Questions About Robert E. Lee

Who was Robert E. Lee?

Robert E. Lee was a prominent American military officer best known as a Confederate general during the American Civil War (1861-1865). He commanded the Army of Northern Virginia, the Confederacy's primary military force in the Eastern Theater, and was eventually appointed General-in-Chief of the Confederate armies.

What was Robert E. Lee's role before the Civil War?

Before the Civil War, Robert E. Lee had a distinguished 32-year career in the United States Army. He was a top graduate of West Point, an accomplished military engineer, and gained significant recognition for his service during the Mexican-American War. He also served as the Superintendent of the U.S. Military Academy at West Point.

Why did Robert E. Lee choose to fight for the Confederacy?

Despite his personal desire for the Union to remain intact and an offer to command the Union Army, Lee chose to resign from the U.S. Army and side with the Confederacy out of allegiance to his home state of Virginia when it seceded from the Union in April 1861.

What were some of Robert E. Lee's most famous battles?

Robert E. Lee is renowned for his command in battles such as the Seven Days Battles, Second Battle of Bull Run, Antietam, Fredericksburg, and Chancellorsville. His most famous, and ultimately decisive, defeat occurred at the Battle of Gettysburg in July 1863.

How did Robert E. Lee's military strategy impact the Civil War?

Lee was known for his aggressive and audacious tactical style, often achieving victories against larger Union forces through brilliant maneuvers. However, his two major invasions of the North failed, and his willingness to accept high casualties, particularly at Gettysburg, proved unsustainable for the Confederacy given its limited manpower and resources.

What did Robert E. Lee do after the Civil War?

After surrendering at Appomattox in April 1865, Robert E. Lee became the president of Washington College (now Washington and Lee University) in Lexington, Virginia. In this post-war role, he advocated for reconciliation between the North and South and focused on rebuilding education in the region.