James Longstreet, American general and diplomat (b. 1821)

James Longstreet: Lee's "Old War Horse" and a Complex Legacy

Born on January 8, 1821, in Edgefield District, South Carolina, James Longstreet emerged as one of the most prominent and impactful Confederate generals during the American Civil War (1861-1865). Revered by General Robert E. Lee, who affectionately dubbed him his "Old War Horse," Longstreet served as Lee's principal subordinate and corps commander for the majority of the pivotal engagements fought by the formidable Army of Northern Virginia within the Eastern Theater. His strategic acumen and unwavering resolve were crucial to many Confederate successes. Although primarily associated with the Eastern Theater, Longstreet also had a significant, albeit brief, tenure serving with General Braxton Bragg's Army of Tennessee in the Western Theater, where his contributions proved decisive.

Early Life and Pre-Civil War Military Career

Longstreet's military journey began at the esteemed United States Military Academy at West Point, from which he graduated in 1842. His class was notable for producing several future generals who would face each other during the Civil War, including his close friend and future Union commander Ulysses S. Grant. Following his graduation, Longstreet embarked on a distinguished career in the United States Army, serving with distinction during the Mexican-American War (1846-1848). He participated in key campaigns, including Scott's march from Veracruz to Mexico City, and sustained a wound to his thigh during the fiercely contested Battle of Chapultepec in September 1847. It was during his recovery from this injury that he married his first wife, Louise Garland, in March 1848. Throughout the 1850s, Longstreet's service continued on frontier duty across the American Southwest, engaging in various assignments that honed his leadership and strategic skills, often involving skirmishes and maintaining order in the expanding territories. With the escalating sectional crisis and the secession of his home state of Alabama (where his family had moved), Longstreet made the momentous decision in June 1861 to resign his U.S. Army commission, opting instead to join the Confederate Army and lend his considerable talents to the nascent Confederacy. His early Confederate service saw him commanding troops to an initial victory at the Battle of Blackburn's Ford in July 1861, a crucial skirmish that foreshadowed the larger conflict. Shortly thereafter, he played a minor, though foundational, role as a brigade commander at the First Battle of Bull Run (Manassas), gaining valuable combat experience that would inform his later, more prominent commands.

Contributions to the Confederacy: Key Campaigns and Controversies

James Longstreet's contributions were instrumental to most major Confederate victories, especially as one of Robert E. Lee's most trusted and indispensable chief subordinates in the Army of Northern Virginia. His tactical prowess, particularly in defensive operations, logistics, and devastating counterattacks, earned him a reputation as a master tactician.

Eastern Theater Campaigns

• Seven Pines (Fair Oaks), May-June 1862: Early in his command, Longstreet made a significant tactical error by accidentally marching some of his men down the wrong road, causing them to arrive late and disrupt Confederate battle plans. This misstep, however, served as a crucial learning experience, reinforcing his methodical approach to future engagements.
• Seven Days Battles, June-July 1862: Recovering from Seven Pines, Longstreet played an exceptionally important role in these series of battles around Richmond. He helped supervise and often led repeated, aggressive attacks that successfully drove Union General George B. McClellan's Army of the Potomac away from the Confederate capital, saving Richmond from imminent threat. His corps often formed the spearhead of these assaults.
• Second Battle of Bull Run (Second Manassas), August 1862: This battle showcased Longstreet's tactical brilliance. His corps, numbering nearly 30,000 men, executed a devastating flank counterattack against Union General John Pope's army on August 30, routing the Federal forces and securing a decisive Confederate victory. This masterful maneuver cemented his reputation as a formidable field commander.
• Battle of Antietam (Sharpsburg), September 1862: At Antietam, the bloodiest single-day battle in American history, Longstreet's men demonstrated remarkable resilience. Despite being significantly outnumbered, his corps held their ground in crucial defensive roles, absorbing massive Union assaults and preventing a Confederate collapse, particularly around the Sunken Road and Burnside's Bridge.
• Battle of Fredericksburg, December 1862: Longstreet's defensive genius was on full display here. His corps occupied strong, entrenched positions on Marye's Heights, inflicting catastrophic casualties on wave after wave of attacking Union troops. The Union forces suffered over 12,000 casualties, largely due to Longstreet's expertly positioned defenses.
• Chancellorsville, April-May 1863: Notably, Longstreet did not participate in the famous Confederate victory at Chancellorsville. At Lee's direction, he and two of his divisions (approximately 15,000 men) were detached on the comparatively minor but strategically important Siege of Suffolk in southeastern Virginia. Their mission was to secure provisions and deny the Union army access to vital resources, a task they accomplished, but their absence undoubtedly altered the course of the Chancellorsville campaign.
• Battle of Gettysburg, July 1863: Longstreet's service at Gettysburg remains his most controversial. He openly disagreed with General Lee regarding the tactical approach, advocating for a strategic defensive rather than the frontal assaults Lee ultimately ordered. Despite his reservations, he reluctantly supervised several unsuccessful attacks on Union forces, including those on the Peach Orchard, Little Round Top, and the ultimately catastrophic Pickett's Charge on the third day. His perceived slowness and disagreement with Lee became a primary target for critics, particularly after the war.

Western Theater and Final Campaigns

Following Gettysburg, and at his own request, Longstreet was transferred to the Western Theater to serve under General Braxton Bragg. This move was partly driven by his desire for an independent command and a change of scenery after the frustrations of Gettysburg.

• Battle of Chickamauga, September 1863: In a pivotal moment for the Confederacy in the West, Longstreet's corps arrived at Chickamauga and launched a ferocious, perfectly timed assault on the Union lines, creating a decisive breakthrough that ultimately carried the day and resulted in one of the most significant Confederate victories in the Western Theater. This master stroke further solidified his reputation as an aggressive offensive commander when given the opportunity.
• Knoxville Campaign, November-December 1863: Longstreet's subsequent performance in semi-autonomous command during the Knoxville campaign proved less successful, ultimately resulting in a Confederate defeat and a strategic setback. This campaign was marred by miscalculations, logistical issues, and a lack of decisive action.
• Conflicts with Bragg: Longstreet's tenure in the Western Theater was further complicated and marred by his central role in numerous conflicts and personality clashes among Confederate generals, particularly with Braxton Bragg, who was notorious for his difficult command style. These internal squabbles severely hindered Confederate effectiveness in the West.

Unhappy serving under Bragg and recognizing the deteriorating situation in Virginia, Longstreet and his men were dispatched back to General Lee's command in the Eastern Theater in April 1864, just in time for the crucial Overland Campaign.

• Battle of the Wilderness, May 1864: Longstreet ably commanded his troops during this brutal engagement. However, in a tragic turn of events, he was seriously wounded by friendly fire on May 6, 1864, in circumstances eerily similar to Stonewall Jackson's fatal wounding a year earlier. The wound to his shoulder and throat was severe, temporarily paralyzing his arm, and his absence was keenly felt by Lee during the remainder of the Overland Campaign.
• Siege of Petersburg and Appomattox Campaign, 1864-1865: Despite his debilitating injuries, Longstreet demonstrated immense resolve, returning to the field in October 1864. He continued to serve under Lee through the arduous Siege of Petersburg, where his defensive expertise was again vital, and during the final, desperate Appomattox Campaign, ultimately surrendering with Lee at Appomattox Court House on April 9, 1865.

Post-War Life and Enduring Legacy

After the cessation of hostilities, James Longstreet embarked on a remarkably successful and, for many Southerners, controversial post-war career. Breaking from the prevailing sentiment of many former Confederates, he embraced reconciliation with the Union and actively worked for the U.S. government.

Political and Public Service Roles

• Diplomat and Civil Servant: His commitment to reunification was demonstrated through various appointments, including serving as the Surveyor of Customs in New Orleans, Minister Resident to Turkey (1880-1881), and as a U.S. Railway Commissioner (1897-1904). These roles showcased his administrative capabilities and dedication to public service.
• Alliance with Grant: Longstreet's support for the Republican Party and his close cooperation with his old friend, President Ulysses S. Grant, who appointed him to several federal positions, made him anathema to many of his former Confederate colleagues and the majority of the white Southern population. He became a symbol of "scalawag" (a derogatory term for white Southerners who supported Reconstruction) in the eyes of unreconstructed Confederates.
• Criticism of Lee: Further alienating him from the Southern establishment were his critical comments, primarily in his memoirs "From Manassas to Appomattox" (1896), regarding Lee's wartime performance, particularly at Gettysburg. While he acknowledged Lee's genius, he believed Lee made strategic errors by ordering frontal assaults. This stark departure from the emerging narrative of Lee's infallibility fueled resentment.
• Battle of Liberty Place, 1874: His reputation in the South suffered even further when, as a federal official (head of the Metropolitan Police of New Orleans), he led African-American militia and state forces against the anti-Reconstruction White League during the Battle of Liberty Place in New Orleans in September 1874. This act of upholding federal authority against a white supremacist paramilitary organization was seen as an unforgivable betrayal by many white Southerners.

The "Lost Cause" and Historical Reassessment

The burgeoning "Lost Cause" movement, a post-war phenomenon that sought to romanticize the Confederacy and attribute its defeat to factors other than slavery or military shortcomings, specifically targeted Longstreet. Authors and proponents of this narrative, such as Jubal Early and William Pendleton, often focused on Longstreet's actions and perceived delays at Gettysburg as a principal reason for why the South supposedly lost the Civil War, making him a convenient scapegoat and diverting blame from Lee. This campaign of vilification significantly damaged his historical standing for decades.

As an elderly man, Longstreet married Helen Dortch Longstreet in 1904, a woman several decades his junior. After his death on January 2, 1904, in Gainesville, Georgia, Helen tirelessly worked to restore her late husband's tarnished image, publishing articles and defending his record against the Lost Cause narrative. Since the late 20th century, Longstreet's reputation has undergone a slow but significant reassessment. Many contemporary Civil War historians now consider him among the war's most gifted tactical commanders, particularly valuing his defensive capabilities, logistical foresight, and strategic realism, often viewing him as a more "modern" general who understood the changing nature of warfare.

Frequently Asked Questions About James Longstreet

When and where was James Longstreet born and did he die?

James Longstreet was born on January 8, 1821, in Edgefield District, South Carolina, and he passed away on January 2, 1904, in Gainesville, Georgia, just six days before his 83rd birthday.

Why was James Longstreet called "Old War Horse" by Robert E. Lee?

General Robert E. Lee bestowed the nickname "Old War Horse" upon James Longstreet to signify his steadfastness, reliability, and immense value as a senior corps commander. It reflected Lee's deep trust in Longstreet's judgment and his ability to execute complex military operations.

What was James Longstreet's role at the Battle of Gettysburg?

At the Battle of Gettysburg in July 1863, James Longstreet served as Lieutenant General and commander of the First Corps of the Army of Northern Virginia. He famously disagreed with General Lee's plan for offensive frontal assaults, advocating instead for a strategic defensive. Despite his reservations, he reluctantly commanded key Confederate attacks, including those against the Peach Orchard and Little Round Top, and supervised Pickett's Charge on the final day of the battle. His actions and perceived delays at Gettysburg became a major point of controversy in his post-war reputation.

Why was Longstreet controversial after the Civil War?

Longstreet became highly controversial after the Civil War due to several actions: his decision to support the Republican Party and work with his old friend, President Ulysses S. Grant; his critical comments about Robert E. Lee's wartime decisions, particularly at Gettysburg; and his active participation in Reconstruction efforts, including leading African-American militia against white supremacists during the Battle of Liberty Place in 1874. These actions were seen as a betrayal by many former Confederates and proponents of the "Lost Cause" narrative.

How has James Longstreet's historical reputation changed over time?

For many decades after the Civil War, James Longstreet's reputation was severely tarnished, largely due to the "Lost Cause" movement's efforts to scapegoat him for the Confederate defeat at Gettysburg and his post-war political alignment. However, since the late 20th century, a significant reassessment by historians has taken place. Many now view him as one of the war's most capable tactical commanders, praised for his defensive strategies, logistical foresight, and pragmatic approach to warfare, leading to a much more favorable and balanced understanding of his military legacy.