Frederick the Great, Prussian king (d. 1786)

Frederick II, known widely as Frederick the Great (German: Friedrich der Große), was a pivotal figure in European history, reigning as King in Prussia from 1740 until 1772, and subsequently as King of Prussia from 1772 until his demise on 17 August 1786. Born on 24 January 1712, he left an indelible mark on the Kingdom of Prussia, transforming it into a formidable military and political power.

His reign was characterized by several monumental achievements. Foremost among these were his resounding military successes in the **Silesian Wars**, which significantly expanded Prussian territory and prestige. Frederick was also responsible for a profound re-organization and modernization of the **Prussian Army**, establishing it as one of the most efficient fighting forces of its era. A controversial but strategically significant action was his role in the **First Partition of Poland** in 1772, a geopolitical maneuver that further augmented Prussian lands. Beyond military and territorial expansion, Frederick was a notable patron of the arts and a staunch advocate for the ideals of the **Enlightenment**.

Frederick holds the distinction of being the last **Hohenzollern** monarch to bear the title "King in Prussia." This title historically referred to his sovereignty over the Duchy of Prussia, which was outside the Holy Roman Empire, while implying a more limited claim over the larger Brandenburg-Prussia territories within the Empire. Following the annexation of Polish Prussia from the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1772—a move that connected the disparate eastern and western parts of his kingdom—Frederick boldly declared himself "King of Prussia." Under his astute and often ruthless rule, Prussia dramatically increased its geographical footprint and solidified its status as a major European military power. Affectionately, or perhaps wryly, he was also nicknamed "The Old Fritz" (German: "Der Alte Fritz") by his subjects, a testament to his longevity and familiar presence.

Frederick's Early Life and Military Genesis

Frederick's formative years were marked by a profound intellectual curiosity that often clashed with the austere expectations of his authoritarian father, Frederick William I, famously known as the "Soldier King." While his father was obsessed with military discipline and the growth of the Prussian Army, the young Frederick was far more inclined towards music, philosophy, and French literature. This fundamental disagreement led to significant tension, culminating in Frederick's failed attempt to flee Prussia in 1730, an act for which his close friend, Hans Hermann von Katte, was executed before his eyes.

Despite his youthful aversion to military matters, upon ascending to the Prussian throne in 1740, Frederick immediately demonstrated a formidable and unexpected military acumen. His first major act was the invasion and annexation of the rich Austrian province of **Silesia** in 1740, triggering the First Silesian War (part of the larger War of the Austrian Succession). This aggressive move, executed with swiftness and strategic brilliance, ultimately secured Silesia for Prussia by 1742, earning him and his kingdom widespread military acclaim.

Frederick's personal battlefield experiences in the Silesian Wars and the later **Seven Years' War** profoundly shaped his understanding of warfare. He evolved into an influential military theorist whose analytical insights extended beyond mere combat, encompassing sophisticated issues of strategy, tactics, mobility, and logistics. His writings, such as his "Instructions for His Generals," became canonical texts for military education, influencing generations of commanders across Europe.

Enlightened Absolutism and Domestic Reforms

Frederick II espoused the principles of **enlightened absolutism**, a political philosophy that justified absolute monarchical power through the promotion of public welfare and rational governance. He famously articulated this belief by stating that the ruler should be the "first servant of the state," implying a duty to serve the interests of the nation rather than personal ambition.

Under this philosophy, Frederick undertook extensive reforms across his realm:

• Bureaucratic and Civil Service Modernization: He streamlined the Prussian administration, emphasizing efficiency, meritocracy, and direct accountability to the crown. This laid the groundwork for a highly effective and centralized state apparatus.
• Judicial System Reform: Frederick significantly reformed the legal system. He largely abolished torture, limited censorship, and oversaw the codification of Prussian law, culminating in the *Allgemeines Landrecht für die Preußischen Staaten* (General State Laws for the Prussian States) in 1794. Crucially, he made it possible for talented individuals of lower social status, not just the aristocracy, to rise through the ranks and become judges and senior bureaucrats, fostering a more meritocratic civil service.
• Religious Policies: His policies demonstrated a complex mix of tolerance and pragmatic segregation. While he famously declared, "All religions are tolerated here and everyone must be allowed to go to heaven in his own fashion," and encouraged persecuted Protestant groups like Huguenots and Mennonites to settle in Prussia, he also enacted oppressive measures against Catholics in newly acquired territories such as Silesia and Polish Prussia. This often stemmed from political expediency rather than pure religious intolerance.
• Immigration and Economic Development: Frederick actively encouraged immigration from various nationalities and faiths, viewing it as a means to boost Prussia's population, economy, and agricultural output, particularly after the devastating Seven Years' War. He introduced new crops like the potato to improve food security.
• Patronage of Arts and Philosophy: A true man of the Enlightenment, Frederick was a fervent patron of the arts and sciences. He invited prominent philosophers and intellectuals, including Voltaire, to his court at **Sanssouci Palace** in Potsdam, his beloved summer residence and a masterpiece of Rococo architecture. He also allowed a significant degree of freedom of the press and literature, fostering intellectual discourse within his realm.

Personal Life and Succession

Frederick II's personal life remains a subject of considerable historical and scholarly interest. He was almost certainly homosexual, a fact that has been widely studied and discussed by historians. His relationships were primarily with men, and he never produced an heir. He is interred at his cherished residence, Sanssouci in Potsdam, a place that embodies his Enlightenment ideals and artistic sensibilities. As he died childless, he was succeeded by his nephew, Frederick William II, who inherited a powerful and transformed Prussia.

Frederick's Enduring Historical Legacy

Frederick II's historical reputation has evolved significantly over time, often reflecting the prevailing political and cultural currents in Germany.

• 19th Century Glorification: During the 19th century, particularly amidst the rise of German nationalism and the drive for unification, nearly all German historians depicted Frederick as a romantic ideal of a glorified warrior. They lauded his exceptional leadership, administrative efficiency, unwavering devotion to duty, and his unparalleled success in elevating Prussia to a great power in Europe. Figures like Heinrich von Treitschke cemented this image, portraying him as a foundational figure for the unified German Empire.
• Early 20th Century and Nazi Appropriation: Frederick remained an admired historical figure through Germany's defeat in World War I. However, his image took a darker turn with the rise of Nazism. The Nazis glorified him as a quintessential German leader, selectively emphasizing his military genius, ruthlessness, and state-building prowess while largely ignoring his Enlightenment principles. Adolf Hitler, in particular, personally idolized Frederick, seeing him as a pre-figuring figure for his own ambitions and a symbol of uncompromising national will.
• Post-World War II Reassessment: After Germany's defeat in World War II and the subsequent critical examination of its past, Frederick's reputation became considerably less favorable. This decline was largely due to his uncomfortable association with Nazi ideology and his perceived role in fostering a militaristic tradition that arguably contributed to later German aggression.
• 21st Century Perspective: In the 21st century, historians generally hold a more nuanced and balanced view of Frederick the Great. While acknowledging the controversies and the complexities of his personality and policies, he is widely regarded as an outstanding military leader and a highly capable monarch. His unwavering commitment to Enlightenment culture and his sweeping administrative reforms are recognized as crucial elements that built the robust foundation, both militarily and institutionally, which enabled the Kingdom of Prussia to successfully contest the Austrian Habsburgs for leadership among the numerous German states.

Frequently Asked Questions About Frederick the Great

Who was Frederick the Great?

Frederick II, also known as Frederick the Great, was King in Prussia from 1740-1772 and King of Prussia from 1772-1786. He was a highly influential monarch who transformed Prussia into a major European power.

What were Frederick the Great's most significant accomplishments?

His key accomplishments include his military victories in the Silesian Wars, his comprehensive reorganization of the Prussian Army, his role in the First Partition of Poland, and his dedicated patronage of the arts and the Enlightenment.

Why was he called "King in Prussia" and then "King of Prussia"?

Initially, he was "King in Prussia" because part of his territory, the Duchy of Prussia, was outside the Holy Roman Empire, while other territories were within it. After annexing Polish Prussia in 1772, which connected his eastern and western territories, he declared himself "King of Prussia" to signify full sovereignty over the entire Prussian realm.

What is enlightened absolutism? Did Frederick II practice it?

Enlightened absolutism was a form of absolute monarchy in the 18th century where rulers embraced Enlightenment principles such as reason, progress, and the welfare of their subjects, while maintaining absolute power. Frederick II was a prominent practitioner, famously stating he was the "first servant of the state," implementing reforms in law, administration, and promoting tolerance while still exercising ultimate authority.

Where is Frederick the Great buried?

Frederick the Great is buried at his favorite residence, Sanssouci Palace, located in Potsdam, Germany.