William McKinley, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 25th President of the United States (d. 1901)

William McKinley (January 29, 1843 – September 14, 1901) served as the 25th President of the United States, holding office from 1897 until his tragic assassination in 1901. His presidency marked a pivotal transition period in American history, bridging the Gilded Age of industrial expansion with the nascent Progressive Era, and fundamentally reshaping the nation's economic and international standing.

Key Policies and Economic Vision

McKinley's administration was characterized by distinct economic policies aimed at fostering domestic prosperity. He was a staunch advocate for protective tariffs, a core Republican principle during his era. These tariffs were designed to shield American industries and manufacturers from cheaper foreign competition, thereby encouraging domestic production, creating jobs, and ensuring higher wages for American workers. His most notable pre-presidential legislative achievement was the highly controversial 1890 McKinley Tariff, which raised average ad valorem rates to nearly 50%, one of the highest in U.S. history at the time. This was followed during his presidency by the 1897 Dingley Tariff, which further increased these protective duties, reflecting his consistent commitment to this economic strategy.

Another cornerstone of McKinley's economic policy was his firm rejection of the expansionary monetary policy advocated by the "free silver" movement. This movement, popular among farmers and debtors, proposed unlimited coinage of silver alongside gold to inflate the money supply, hoping to ease debt burdens. In stark contrast, McKinley was a steadfast proponent of the gold standard, believing it provided greater economic stability, predictability, and confidence for investors and creditors. His commitment culminated in the passage of the Gold Standard Act of 1900, which formally established gold as the sole basis for the U.S. currency, effectively ending decades of monetary debate.

Early Life and Political Ascent

Born in Niles, Ohio, William McKinley was the last U.S. president to have served in the American Civil War, and notably, the only one to begin his service as an enlisted man—a private in the 23rd Ohio Volunteer Infantry—and rise through the ranks to end as a brevet major. This unique military career, often under the command of future president Rutherford B. Hayes, provided him with valuable experience and a foundation for his political future.

Following his military service, McKinley settled in Canton, Ohio, where he pursued a career in law. He married Ida Saxton in 1871, whose lifelong health struggles, including epilepsy and chronic illness, deeply influenced McKinley's personal life and campaign strategies. In 1876, he was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives, quickly establishing himself as the Republican Party's leading expert and champion of the protective tariff policy, which he consistently argued would usher in national prosperity.

Despite his growing influence, McKinley faced a setback in the 1890 election. The McKinley Tariff of 1890 proved highly unpopular with consumers and led to retaliatory tariffs from other nations. This, combined with a targeted Democratic redistricting effort known as gerrymandering designed specifically to remove him from office, contributed to his defeat in the Democratic landslide of that year.

However, McKinley's political career rebounded quickly. He was elected Governor of Ohio in 1891 and re-elected in 1893. As governor, he navigated a moderate path between the often-conflicting interests of capital and labor, mediating strikes and advocating for factory safety regulations, showcasing his pragmatic approach to governance.

The Pivotal 1896 Presidential Election

Amidst a severe economic downturn following the Panic of 1893, which caused widespread unemployment and social unrest, McKinley secured the Republican nomination for president in 1896. This was largely due to the strategic brilliance and organizational prowess of his close adviser and political manager, Mark Hanna, a powerful Ohio industrialist who masterminded a highly effective fundraising and campaign operation.

McKinley faced his Democratic rival, the charismatic orator William Jennings Bryan, in a fiercely contested election. While Bryan embarked on an exhaustive "whistle-stop" tour, crisscrossing the nation to deliver thousands of speeches, McKinley opted for a more controlled "front porch campaign" from his home in Canton, Ohio. This strategy allowed him to appear stable and presidential, carefully managing his public message and addressing delegations from various states. He consistently advocated for "sound money"—meaning the gold standard, unless modified by international agreement—and reiterated his promise that high protective tariffs would revitalize the American economy and restore prosperity. His victory in 1896 is historically significant, viewed as a "realigning election" that ended the political stalemate of the post-Civil War era and inaugurated the Republican-dominated Fourth Party System, ushering in the Progressive Era.

The McKinley Presidency: Prosperity and Global Expansion

McKinley's presidency was indeed marked by rapid economic growth, which benefited from both his policies and a broader global economic recovery. Beyond domestic policies, his administration saw a dramatic shift in American foreign policy, transforming the nation into a global power.

The Spanish-American War of 1898

A defining event of his presidency was the Spanish-American War. McKinley initially sought to resolve the Cuban independence movement through diplomacy, attempting to persuade Spain to grant autonomy to the rebellious island without conflict. However, mounting tensions, fueled by sensationalist "yellow journalism," reports of Spanish atrocities in Cuba, and the mysterious explosion of the USS Maine in Havana Harbor (though later found to be accidental, it was widely blamed on Spain at the time), ultimately led to a declaration of war.

The United States victory in the Spanish-American War was swift and decisive, lasting only about ten weeks. The subsequent Treaty of Paris in December 1898 dramatically altered the global geopolitical landscape. Spain ceded its main overseas colonies of Puerto Rico and Guam to the United States. While Cuba was promised independence, it remained under the de facto control of the U.S. Army for several years and was subject to the Platt Amendment, which granted the U.S. significant influence over its affairs.

Crucially, Spain also sold the Philippines to the United States for $20 million. This acquisition, a subject of intense debate at the time regarding American imperial ambitions, immediately led to the brutal Philippine-American War (1899-1902), as Filipino nationalists fought for their independence against American rule, a conflict that cast a shadow over the initial victory.

Further Territorial Expansion and Diplomatic Reach

In addition to the territories acquired from Spain, McKinley's administration also oversaw the annexation of the independent Republic of Hawaii in 1898. This strategic acquisition, following a long period of American commercial and political interest in the islands and the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy by American residents, transformed Hawaii into a U.S. territory, solidifying America's presence in the Pacific and enhancing its global reach.

McKinley also furthered American influence internationally through his "Open Door Policy" in China, advocating for equal trading rights for all nations and preserving China's territorial integrity, showcasing an early form of American interventionism in global affairs.

Legacy and Assassination

McKinley again defeated William Jennings Bryan in the 1900 presidential election. This campaign largely centered on the issues of American imperialism (particularly the conflict in the Philippines), protectionism, and the fading debate over free silver. His re-election affirmed the public's support for his policies and America's emerging global role.

However, his achievements were tragically cut short. On September 6, 1901, while attending the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo, New York, President McKinley was fatally shot by Leon Czolgosz, a 28-year-old self-proclaimed anarchist of Polish-American descent. Czolgosz stated his motive was a belief that McKinley was an oppressor of the working class. Despite initial hopes for recovery, McKinley succumbed to gangrene from his wounds and died eight days later, on September 14, 1901. His death propelled Vice President Theodore Roosevelt into the presidency, marking a new era in American politics.

Historians generally rank William McKinley as an above-average president. He is recognized as an innovator of American interventionism and a champion of pro-business sentiment, laying the groundwork for the modern American presidency and its role on the world stage. While his popularity during his lifetime was significant, his legacy was soon overshadowed by the dynamic and reform-minded presidency of his successor, Theodore Roosevelt.

Frequently Asked Questions About William McKinley

When was William McKinley president?

William McKinley served as the 25th President of the United States from March 4, 1897, until his death on September 14, 1901.

What were William McKinley's key economic policies?

His core economic policies included strong advocacy for protective tariffs, such as the 1897 Dingley Tariff, to support American industry, and a firm commitment to the gold standard, formally solidified by the Gold Standard Act of 1900, rejecting the "free silver" movement.

What major war occurred during McKinley's presidency?

The Spanish-American War of 1898 was the primary conflict during his time in office, which significantly expanded American territorial holdings and influence.

How did the United States acquire new territories under McKinley?

Following the Spanish-American War, the U.S. acquired Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines from Spain. Additionally, the independent Republic of Hawaii was annexed in 1898, becoming a U.S. territory.

How did William McKinley die?

William McKinley was assassinated on September 6, 1901, by an anarchist named Leon Czolgosz at the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo, New York. He died eight days later from complications of the gunshot wounds.