'Amr ibn al-'As, Arabian general and politician, Governor of Egypt (b. 583)

Amr ibn al-As al-Sahmi: A Pivotal Figure in Early Islamic Conquests and Egyptian History

Amr ibn al-As al-Sahmi (Arabic: عَمْرِو ابْنِ الْعَاصِ, romanized: ʿAmr ibn al-ʿĀṣ al-Sahmī; c. 573 – 664 CE) was a distinguished Arab commander and statesman whose strategic prowess and political acumen played a critical role in the formative years of the Islamic Empire. A prominent figure from the Quraysh tribe of Mecca, specifically the Banu Sahm clan, Amr transitioned from an influential merchant and diplomat in pre-Islamic Arabia to one of the most celebrated military leaders of the early Muslim community. His legacy is most notably defined by his leadership in the Muslim conquest of Egypt, a swift and decisive campaign that brought the fertile Nile Valley under Islamic rule and profoundly reshaped the geopolitical landscape of the 7th century.

Early Life, Conversion to Islam, and Military Beginnings

Born into a wealthy and influential family, Amr ibn al-As was initially a strong opponent of the nascent Muslim community in Mecca. However, a significant turning point in his life occurred around 629 CE, just prior to the Muslim conquest of Mecca, when he embraced Islam alongside other notable figures like Khalid ibn al-Walid. His conversion was a strategic gain for the fledgling Muslim state, as he brought with him not only military talent but also valuable diplomatic and administrative experience gained from his extensive travels and dealings. The Islamic prophet Muhammad recognized Amr's capabilities, entrusting him with important responsibilities within the burgeoning Muslim community, including diplomatic missions, such as the famous delegation to Oman.

Following the Prophet Muhammad's passing, Amr continued to serve under the first Caliph, Abu Bakr (r. 632–634 CE). During the critical period of early Islamic expansion, Caliph Abu Bakr appointed Amr as a key commander in the ambitious conquest of Syria. Amr demonstrated his military brilliance early on, leading Muslim forces to conquer vast swathes of Palestine. He was subsequently appointed as its governor, solidifying Muslim control over the region. His leadership was instrumental in the pivotal victories over the formidable Byzantine Empire, particularly at the Battle of Ajnadayn in 634 CE and the decisive Battle of Yarmouk in 636 CE. These battles effectively broke Byzantine power in the Levant, paving the way for further Muslim expansion.

The Conquest of Egypt and First Governorship (640–646 CE)

In late 639 CE, Amr ibn al-As embarked on what would become his most famous military endeavor: the conquest of Egypt. Leading a relatively small army, accounts vary but suggest a force of around 4,000 to 12,000 men, Amr's campaign was marked by its audacity and rapid success. This initiative is famously debated among historians, with some sources suggesting it was launched on his own strategic foresight, while others indicate a later endorsement from the Caliph Umar. Regardless, his campaign was a brilliant series of victories against the Byzantine forces in Egypt.

Key engagements included the capture of Pelusium (Farama), the strategic fortress of Babylon (near modern-day Cairo), and a decisive victory at Heliopolis. The culmination of this swift conquest was the surrender of the vital port city of Alexandria in either 641 or 642 CE. This marked one of the swiftest and most impactful conquests in early Islamic history, securing for the Caliphate the wealthiest province of the Byzantine Empire and a critical granary.

Following the conquest, Amr extended Muslim influence westward, reaching as far as Tripoli in present-day Libya, further securing the Caliphate's Mediterranean flanks. A hallmark of his administrative policy in Egypt was the treaty signed with Cyrus, the Byzantine governor and Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria (often referred to as Muqawqis in Arabic sources). This treaty guaranteed the security and religious freedom of Egypt's indigenous Coptic Christian population. In return, non-Muslim adult males were required to pay the *jizya*, a poll tax, in exchange for protection and exemption from military service. This arrangement fostered a relatively peaceful transition of power and allowed for the preservation of Egypt's rich cultural and religious heritage.

Amr shrewdly maintained much of the existing Coptic-dominated administrative bureaucracy, leveraging their expertise to ensure continuity in governance. He also cultivated cordial ties with the influential Coptic Patriarch Benjamin I, which significantly eased the transition and fostered stability. As the new provincial capital, Amr founded Fustat (Old Cairo) in 641 CE, strategically located near the captured Babylon Fort and the Nile River. At the heart of this new city, he established the Mosque of Amr ibn al-As, which stands as one of the oldest mosques in Africa and remains an enduring symbol of his legacy.

During his first term, Amr governed Egypt with a significant degree of independence, accumulating considerable personal wealth and effectively representing the interests of the Arab conquerors who formed Fustat's garrison, sometimes in tension with the central authorities in Medina. However, this independent streak and the accusations of incompetency leveled against him by his successor, Abdallah ibn Sa'd (Caliph Uthman's foster brother), led to his dismissal by Caliph Uthman (r. 644–656 CE) in 646 CE. This move was part of Uthman's broader policy to centralize control and consolidate power within the nascent Caliphate.

The First Muslim Civil War and Second Governorship (658–664 CE)

Amr ibn al-As's political acumen was further tested during the tumultuous period following Caliph Uthman's assassination in 656 CE by mutineers from Egypt. Despite having previously been a vocal critic of Uthman's policies and contributing to the atmosphere of opposition, Amr strategically distanced himself from the direct perpetrators of the assassination. This calculated move allowed him to navigate the complex political landscape that led to the First Muslim Civil War (Fitna).

In this devastating conflict, Amr allied himself with Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan, the powerful governor of Syria, against Caliph Ali ibn Abi Talib (r. 656–661 CE). This alliance was largely predicated on Mu'awiya's promise to reinstate Amr as the governor of Egypt, granting him control over its vast tax revenues and strategic importance. Amr's sharp intellect and legendary negotiating skills were put to use when he served as Mu'awiya's chief representative in the abortive arbitration talks at Dumat al-Jandal, which followed the indecisive Battle of Siffin. While the arbitration failed to end the war, Amr skillfully outmaneuvered Ali's representative, Abu Musa al-Ash'ari, effectively undermining Ali's authority and strengthening Mu'awiya's position.

Following the arbitration, Amr wasted no time in reclaiming Egypt for Mu'awiya's faction. He successfully ousted Ali's loyalist governor, Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr (the son of the first Caliph, Abu Bakr), and tragically, Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr was killed in the process. Amr subsequently reassumed the governorship of Egypt. Upon the establishment of the Umayyad Caliphate in 661 CE, Mu'awiya, now the Caliph, honored his promise and kept Amr in his influential post. Amr ibn al-As continued to govern the strategically vital province of Egypt until his death in 664 CE, cementing his legacy as one of the most significant figures in early Islamic history and a key architect of the Umayyad dynasty.

Frequently Asked Questions about Amr ibn al-As

Who was Amr ibn al-As?

Amr ibn al-As was a prominent Arab commander and statesman from the Quraysh tribe who played a pivotal role in the early Muslim conquests, most notably leading the swift and successful conquest of Egypt.

When did Amr ibn al-As conquer Egypt?

Amr ibn al-As launched the Muslim conquest of Egypt in late 639 CE, completing it with the surrender of Alexandria by 641 or 642 CE.

What was the significance of Amr ibn al-As's conquest of Egypt?

The conquest of Egypt was crucial as it brought the wealthy and agriculturally rich province under Muslim control, provided a secure base for further expansion into North Africa, and significantly weakened the Byzantine Empire. It was also one of the swiftest early Muslim conquests.

What was Amr ibn al-As's role in the First Muslim Civil War?

During the First Muslim Civil War (Fitna), Amr ibn al-As allied himself with Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan against Caliph Ali, leveraging his political and military experience to secure Egypt for Mu'awiya and serving as his representative in the crucial but ultimately failed arbitration talks at Dumat al-Jandal.

What lasting legacy did Amr ibn al-As leave in Egypt?

Amr ibn al-As founded Fustat, the first Muslim capital of Egypt, and established the Mosque of Amr ibn al-As, one of the oldest mosques in Africa. His administrative policies, including maintaining the Coptic bureaucracy and ensuring religious freedom in exchange for the *jizya* tax, shaped the early governance of Islamic Egypt.