Joan of Arc, French martyr and saint (d. 1431)

Joan of Arc, known in French as Jeanne d'Arc (pronounced [ʒan daʁk]), was an extraordinary figure in medieval history, living from approximately 1412 to May 30, 1431. Revered today as a national heroine of France and a canonized saint within the Roman Catholic Church, Joan referred to herself simply as "Joan the Maiden" ("Jehanne la Pucelle" in the French of her era). She is perhaps most famously known by her enduring nickname, "The Maid of Orléans" (French: La Pucelle d'Orléans), a title earned through her pivotal actions. Her indelible mark on history stems from her crucial leadership during the Lancastrian phase of the Hundred Years' War, a protracted conflict that profoundly shaped the destinies of both France and England. At a time when France faced the very real threat of complete subjugation by English forces and their Burgundian allies, Joan emerged from humble beginnings to inspire a nation and alter the course of the war.

Early Life and Divine Calling

Born into a humble peasant family to Jacques d'Arc and Isabelle Romée in the small village of Domrémy, situated in the Vosges region of northeast France, Joan's early life was typical of the period. This region was particularly vulnerable, lying close to the frontier with Burgundian territories, an area frequently subjected to raids and skirmishes, which instilled in her a deep understanding of the suffering caused by the ongoing war. In 1428, at the approximate age of 17, Joan embarked on a remarkable journey to Vaucouleurs. There, driven by an unwavering conviction, she sought an armed escort to the Dauphin, Charles VII, who held court at Chinon.

Joan later recounted under oath during her trial that she had begun receiving divine visions and voices from a young age. These celestial messengers, which she identified as the Archangel Michael, Saint Margaret, and Saint Catherine of Alexandria, imparted a sacred mission: to support Charles VII's rightful claim to the French throne and to liberate France from the oppressive English domination. Initially, her extraordinary claims and audacious request to meet the uncrowned King were met with skepticism and rejection by the local garrison commander, Robert de Baudricourt, on two separate occasions. However, faced with the increasing desperation of the French cause and perhaps swayed by Joan's profound conviction and the local populace's growing belief in her divine mandate, Baudricourt eventually relented. He provided her with a small escort to journey across enemy-held territory to Chinon, marking the true commencement of her epic, albeit brief, military career.

Military Triumphs and Charles VII's Consecration

Following a cautious but ultimately convinced interview with Joan, Charles VII, emboldened by her fervent belief and the pressing need for a miracle, dispatched her to the ongoing Siege of Orléans as part of a crucial relief army. Orléans, strategically vital due to its location on the Loire River, was the last major French stronghold blocking the English advance into the remaining French territories. Its fall would have likely signified the complete collapse of the Dauphin's cause. Joan arrived at the besieged city on April 29, 1429. Her presence, marked by a profound spiritual conviction and an uncanny ability to inspire, immediately revitalized the demoralized French forces. Within a mere nine days of her arrival, and through a series of bold and decisive actions, often leading from the front, Joan played an instrumental role in successfully lifting the siege. This extraordinary feat, against overwhelming odds, earned her the lasting epithet, "The Maid of Orléans."

The momentum generated by the relief of Orléans was swiftly capitalized upon. Throughout June 1429, Joan continued to play a pivotal role in what became known as the Loire Campaign. This series of rapid engagements secured several key bridgeheads along the Loire River, effectively clearing the path for further French advances. The campaign culminated in the Battle of Patay on June 18, 1429. Here, the French army, under Joan's influence, achieved a decisive victory, inflicting a crushing defeat upon the English forces, largely routing their formidable archers and cavalry in open combat. This triumph was not merely tactical; it shattered the myth of English invincibility.

With the Loire valley secured, the next strategic objective was Reims. On July 16, following the victorious advance of the French army, they entered the city. The very next day, July 17, 1429, Charles VII underwent his sacred consecration as the King of France within the hallowed walls of Reims Cathedral, with Joan of Arc standing prominently by his side. This coronation was immensely significant, as it validated Charles's claim to the throne through traditional French custom and divine sanction, fundamentally undermining English claims and bolstering French morale and legitimacy. These astonishing victories, achieved within a span of mere months, not only provided an unprecedented boost to French morale but also undeniably paved the way for the eventual and final French triumph in the Hundred Years' War at the Battle of Castillon in 1453.

The Siege of Paris and Subsequent Campaigns

Following Charles VII's historic consecration at Reims, Joan of Arc, alongside the Duke of Alençon, led French forces in a strategic move to besiege Paris. An assault on the heavily fortified capital was launched on September 8, 1429. However, this crucial offensive ultimately failed, partly due to strong English and Burgundian defenses, insufficient logistical support, and a lack of decisive commitment from certain factions within the French leadership. During the fierce fighting, Joan herself sustained a significant wound from an arrow. Consequently, the French forces were compelled to withdraw, and King Charles VII, perhaps wary of further direct confrontation, disbanded the army.

Despite this setback, Joan's resolve remained unbroken. By October, she had recovered from her wound and actively participated in a campaign against Perrinet Gressart, a notorious mercenary leader. Gressart was a key figure serving the Anglo-Burgundian faction, which represented a powerful alliance of English forces and French nobles from the Duchy of Burgundy who had sided with England against Charles VII. While this campaign saw some initial successes, it ultimately concluded with a failed attempt to capture Gressart's formidable stronghold at La-Charité-sur-Loire. By December, Joan had returned to the French royal court, where she received news of a profound honor: Charles VII, in recognition of her unparalleled service and the miraculous turn of the war, had formally ennobled her and her family. This elevation from their peasant origins was an exceptionally rare and significant testament to her extraordinary impact on the kingdom.

Capture, Trial, and Execution

In May 1430, demonstrating her continued unwavering commitment to the French cause, Joan of Arc independently organized a company of volunteers to relieve the strategic town of Compiègne, which was under siege by Burgundian forces. During a sally from the town's defenses on May 23, 1430, Joan was tragically cut off and captured by Burgundian troops. Following her capture, she was subsequently sold or exchanged to the English for a substantial sum, illustrating her immense perceived value to the English as a symbol to be discredited.

The English, eager to destroy Joan's credibility and, by extension, undermine the legitimacy of Charles VII's reign, orchestrated a highly politicized trial. She was brought before an ecclesiastical court presided over by Pierre Cauchon, the Bishop of Beauvais, a staunchly pro-English cleric with significant political ambitions. The primary charge against her was heresy, although accusations of witchcraft, blasphemy, and even cross-dressing (which violated canonical law for women) were also leveraged against her. The trial was a clear miscarriage of justice: Joan was denied proper legal counsel, subjected to relentless and intricate theological questioning, and judged by a court largely composed of hostile English and Burgundian sympathizers.

Despite her youth and the immense pressure, Joan steadfastly defended her divine mission and her sincerity. However, after months of grueling interrogation, often without access to the sacraments or a fair hearing, she was ultimately declared guilty of heresy. On May 30, 1431, at the approximate age of 19, Joan of Arc was tragically burned at the stake in the Old Market Place of Rouen. Her public execution was intended to serve as a powerful warning and to obliterate her influence, yet it inadvertently cemented her status as a martyr in the hearts of many.

Posthumous Vindication and Enduring Legacy

Decades after her death, in 1456, a powerful inquisitorial court, formally authorized by Pope Callixtus III and crucially initiated by Charles VII (who sought to clear the name of his champion and thus legitimize his own reign fully), launched a comprehensive investigation into Joan's original trial. This Rehabilitation Trial meticulously examined the proceedings and testimony, ultimately finding the initial verdict to have been procured through deceit, fraud, and egregious procedural irregularities. Consequently, the original judgment against Joan was officially nullified, and the profound stain on her name was publicly and irrevocably erased.

Almost immediately following her execution, Joan of Arc was widely revered by the populace as a martyr for her faith and for France. Over centuries, her image evolved, particularly after the French Revolution, when she transcended her religious significance to become a potent and enduring national symbol of France. Her story, embodying courage, resilience, and patriotism, resonated deeply with the burgeoning sense of French national identity. In the early 20th century, her formal recognition by the Church began: she was beatified in 1909, canonized as a saint in 1920, and subsequently declared a secondary patron saint of France in 1922, cementing her dual status as both a national icon and a revered religious figure.

From the moment of her death to the present day, Joan of Arc has remained an immensely popular and inspirational figure across countless cultural works. Her dramatic life and unwavering conviction have captivated writers, playwrights, filmmakers, artists, and composers, leading to an extensive body of literature, including works by Shakespeare and Schiller, numerous paintings, sculptures, and cinematic depictions. Her enduring legacy continues to inspire new interpretations, making her one of history's most compelling and frequently revisited personalities.

Frequently Asked Questions About Joan of Arc

Who was Joan of Arc and what was her primary role in history?

Joan of Arc (Jeanne d'Arc) was a young French peasant girl who emerged as a pivotal military leader and national heroine during the Lancastrian phase of the Hundred Years' War. Believing she was divinely guided, she led the French army to several significant victories, most notably lifting the Siege of Orléans, which dramatically shifted the war's momentum in favor of France and paved the way for Charles VII's coronation.

What were Joan of Arc's "voices" and how did they influence her actions?

Joan testified that she received divine visions and voices from the Archangel Michael, Saint Margaret, and Saint Catherine of Alexandria. These celestial messages instructed her to support Charles VII, liberate France from English occupation, and secure his rightful place on the throne. Her unwavering belief in these divine instructions fueled her extraordinary courage and conviction, enabling her to persuade skeptical leaders and inspire demoralized troops.

Why is Joan of Arc known as "The Maid of Orléans"?

She earned the nickname "The Maid of Orléans" after her extraordinary success in lifting the English siege of the city of Orléans in May 1429. This strategic victory, achieved in just nine days, was a major turning point in the Hundred Years' War and firmly established her as a miraculous figure and military leader.

Why was Joan of Arc put on trial and what was the outcome?

Joan was captured by Burgundian forces and subsequently sold to the English. She was put on trial for heresy by a pro-English ecclesiastical court led by Bishop Pierre Cauchon. The trial was largely politically motivated, aiming to discredit her divine claims and, by extension, Charles VII's legitimacy. Despite her valiant defense, she was found guilty of heresy and burned at the stake on May 30, 1431.

How was Joan of Arc's name cleared after her death?

In 1456, 25 years after her execution, an inquisitorial court authorized by Pope Callixtus III and initiated by Charles VII conducted a "Rehabilitation Trial." This investigation found her original trial to be riddled with deceit, fraud, and procedural errors. Consequently, the original verdict was nullified, and Joan's name was officially cleared, reaffirming her innocence and the validity of her divine mission.

When was Joan of Arc canonized and what is her status in the Church?

Joan of Arc was beatified by the Roman Catholic Church in 1909 and formally canonized as a saint in 1920 by Pope Benedict XV. In 1922, she was declared a secondary patron saint of France, recognizing her profound spiritual and historical significance to the nation.