The Bosnian War (Serbo-Croatian: Rat u Bosni i Hercegovini / Рат u Босни и Херцеговини), a devastating international armed conflict, unfolded within the borders of Bosnia and Herzegovina from 1992 to 1995. Often considered to have formally commenced on 6 April 1992, following a series of escalating violent incidents, the conflict officially concluded with the signing of peace on 14 December 1995. This war was a direct consequence and a tragic chapter in the broader dissolution of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

At its core, the Bosnian War pitted the forces of the internationally recognized Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina against those of two self-proclaimed proto-states: Herzeg-Bosnia and Republika Srpska. These entities, ethnically based and seeking political autonomy or unification with neighboring states, received significant leadership and material support from Croatia and Serbia, respectively, deeply internationalizing the conflict.

Genesis of the Conflict: The Breakup of Yugoslavia and Bosnian Independence

Following the declarations of independence by Slovenia and Croatia from the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in 1991, the multi-ethnic Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina found itself at a critical juncture. Its population was a complex tapestry of communities: predominantly Muslim Bosniaks (approximately 44%), mainly Orthodox Serbs (around 32.5%), and primarily Catholic Croats (about 17%). In this volatile environment, a referendum for independence was held on 29 February 1992. However, the political representatives of the Bosnian Serbs vehemently boycotted this referendum and explicitly rejected its outcome, foreseeing an independent Bosnia that might not secure their future within a larger Serb state.

Anticipating the referendum's outcome, which was boycotted by the majority of Bosnian Serbs, the Assembly of the Serb People in Bosnia and Herzegovina had already adopted the Constitution of the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 28 February 1992, effectively establishing their own political entity. Bosnia and Herzegovina's subsequent declaration of independence, which swiftly garnered international recognition, was met with intensified opposition from Bosnian Serb leaders. This period was further complicated by the withdrawal of Bosnian President Alija Izetbegović from the previously signed Cutileiro Plan, an internationally mediated proposal that aimed to prevent conflict by suggesting a division of Bosnia into ethnic cantons. This withdrawal, while controversial, reflected the Bosnian government's commitment to a unified and independent Bosnia.

With independence declared and the Cutileiro Plan abandoned, Bosnian Serbs, under the leadership of Radovan Karadžić and with robust support from the Serbian government of Slobodan Milošević and the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA), rapidly mobilized their forces within Bosnia and Herzegovina. Their declared objective was to secure ethnically Serb territories, but this mobilization quickly escalated into widespread conflict across the country, tragically accompanied by systematic campaigns of ethnic cleansing.

Key Belligerents and Phases of Warfare

The conflict initially involved units of the Yugoslav Army (JNA) within Bosnia, which soon transformed into the Army of Republika Srpska (VRS), primarily composed of Bosnian Serbs. Opposing them were the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (ARBiH), largely made up of Bosniaks, and the Croat forces operating under the Croatian Defence Council (HVO).

Throughout late 1992, rising tensions between Croat and Bosniak forces, who had initially been allied against the Serbs, erupted into open conflict. This inter-ethnic fighting escalated into what became known as the Croat–Bosniak War in early 1993, adding another layer of complexity and brutality to the already dire situation.

Defining Characteristics and Atrocities of the Bosnian War

• Bitter and prolonged fighting across diverse terrains.
• Indiscriminate shelling of cities and towns, often targeting civilian populations, as exemplified by the notorious Siege of Sarajevo, which lasted for 1,425 days, making it the longest siege of a capital city in modern warfare.
• Widespread ethnic cleansing, a brutal process intended to forcibly displace or eliminate ethnic groups from specific territories to create ethnically homogenous areas. This included systematic killings, forced deportations, and the destruction of cultural and religious heritage.
• Systematic mass rape, predominantly perpetrated by Serb forces, and to a lesser extent, by Croat and Bosniak forces. Estimates suggest that between 12,000 and 50,000 women, overwhelmingly Bosniak, were victims of sexual violence, used as a weapon of war and an instrument of ethnic cleansing.

Events such as the Siege of Sarajevo, where the city endured constant bombardment and sniper fire, and the Srebrenica massacre in July 1995, where over 8,000 Bosniak men and boys were systematically murdered by Bosnian Serb forces, became grim symbols of the conflict's horrific nature and subsequently recognized as acts of genocide by international courts.

Turning the Tide and The Path to Peace

Initially, Bosnian Serb forces held a significant military advantage, largely due to the substantial weaponry and resources inherited or supplied by the JNA. However, this momentum shifted. A crucial turning point came in 1994 when Bosniak and Croat forces, recognizing their common enemy, forged an alliance. This alliance culminated in the Washington Agreement, leading to the creation of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. This renewed cooperation significantly strengthened the non-Serb forces.

External factors also played a pivotal role in ending the war. Despite a United Nations arms embargo, there are verified reports, for instance, that Pakistan provided significant aid, including airlifting anti-tank missiles to the Bosnian Muslims, which helped to bolster their defense capabilities. More decisively, following the egregious Srebrenica massacre and subsequent attacks like the second Markale market massacre in Sarajevo, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) intervened directly in 1995. Operation Deliberate Force, a sustained air campaign targeting the military positions of the Army of the Republika Srpska, proved instrumental in weakening Serb forces and compelling them to negotiate.

The combination of these factors ultimately paved the way for peace. Negotiations, held in Dayton, Ohio, concluded on 21 November 1995, leading to the signing of the General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina (commonly known as the Dayton Peace Agreement) in Paris on 14 December 1995. This landmark agreement formally ended the war and established the current political structure of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Aftermath and Legacy: Casualties and Justice

The human cost of the Bosnian War was immense. Estimates suggest approximately 100,000 people lost their lives during the conflict, making it the most devastating in Europe since the end of World War II. Furthermore, over 2.2 million people were forcibly displaced from their homes, creating a massive refugee crisis and significantly altering the demographic landscape of the region.

In the pursuit of justice, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), established by the United Nations, played a critical role in prosecuting those responsible for war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide. By early 2008, the ICTY had convicted numerous individuals in connection with the Bosnian War, including forty-five Serbs, twelve Croats, and four Bosniaks, underscoring that atrocities were committed by all sides, though disproportionately by Serb forces, particularly in the most severe crimes.

When did the Bosnian War start and end?

The Bosnian War is generally considered to have started on 6 April 1992 and officially ended with the signing of the Dayton Peace Agreement on 14 December 1995.

Who were the main parties involved in the Bosnian War?

The primary belligerents were the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (ARBiH), the Army of Republika Srpska (VRS), and the Croatian Defence Council (HVO). These forces were supported to varying degrees by Serbia and Croatia, respectively.

What was the significance of the Dayton Peace Agreement?

The Dayton Peace Agreement formally ended the Bosnian War, established a new constitutional framework for Bosnia and Herzegovina, and created two entities within the state: the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska.

What were some of the key atrocities committed during the Bosnian War?

The war was characterized by widespread ethnic cleansing, systematic mass rape, and indiscriminate shelling of civilian areas. Iconic examples include the Siege of Sarajevo and the Srebrenica massacre, both recognized internationally for their extreme brutality.

The Kravica Attack: A Contested Event in the Bosnian War

The Kravica attack refers to a military engagement initiated by the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (ARBiH) from the besieged Srebrenica enclave, targeting the Bosnian Serb village of Kravica. This incident occurred on Orthodox Christmas Day, 7 January 1993, a date chosen for its symbolic significance and the element of surprise, as Serb forces were likely to be less prepared for an offensive.

Context of the Srebrenica Enclave

During the Bosnian War, the Srebrenica enclave was under a brutal siege by Bosnian Serb forces. This siege severely restricted the entry of humanitarian aid, leading to widespread hunger, a critical lack of medicine, and dire living conditions for its Bosniak inhabitants. Amidst these desperate circumstances, it is widely alleged that a key objective of the ARBiH attack on Kravica was to secure vital resources, including food, and to acquire much-needed weapons, ammunition, and other military equipment from the surrounding Serb-held territories.

Details and Casualties of the Attack

The assault on Kravica resulted in significant casualties on the Serb side, with estimates ranging from 43 to 46 fatalities. This figure includes approximately 30-35 armed villagers, who were actively defending the village, and 11-13 civilians. One known survivor of the attack reportedly escaped by hiding in a water main hole, highlighting the intensity of the fighting. The timing of the attack, coinciding with a major religious holiday, contributed to the Serbs being unprepared for such an offensive.

Controversy and Allegations: The Aftermath

The Kravica attack remains a highly controversial event, with differing narratives and interpretations. Republika Srpska authorities, representing the Bosnian Serbs, claimed that Bosniak armed groups systematically torched all homes in the village. However, during the trial of Naser Orić, a prominent Bosniak military commander from Srebrenica, before the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), this specific claim could not be independently verified. The ICTY judges concluded that many houses in Kravica had already been destroyed in previous engagements during the war, suggesting that not all damage could be attributed to the 7 January 1993 attack.

The civilian casualties incurred during the Kravica attack led to strong allegations from Serbia that Bosniak forces had carried out a massacre. Naser Orić was initially charged with crimes related to the killings in Kravica and other areas but was later acquitted of these specific charges. Subsequently, he was acquitted of all charges on appeal, a decision that remains contentious among some parties and continues to fuel debate surrounding the events of the Bosnian War and the Srebrenica region.

When did the Kravica attack take place?

The Kravica attack occurred on Orthodox Christmas Day, 7 January 1993.

What was the alleged motivation for the Kravica attack?

It is alleged that the ARBiH attacked Kravica primarily to obtain food and military supplies for the besieged Srebrenica enclave, which was suffering from severe shortages due to the Serb blockade.

What was the outcome of Naser Orić's trial regarding the Kravica attack?

Naser Orić, a Bosniak commander, was initially charged in connection with killings at Kravica but was acquitted of these specific charges and later acquitted of all charges on appeal by the ICTY.