Alfred the Great: Unifying England Against the Vikings

Alfred the Great, also known by his Old English name Ælfred, was a pivotal figure in early English history, reigning as King of the West Saxons from 871 to approximately 886 AD and subsequently as King of the Anglo-Saxons until his death in 899 AD. His reign marked a significant turning point in the struggle against Viking incursions and laid foundational elements for a unified English kingdom. Born in 848 or 849 AD, Alfred was the youngest son of King Æthelwulf and his first wife, Osburh. Both of Alfred's parents passed away during his youth. He succeeded to the throne following the reigns of his three elder brothers, Æthelbald, Æthelberht, and Æthelred, who each ruled consecutively before him.

Defending Wessex and Forging the Danelaw

Upon his ascension, Alfred inherited a kingdom under severe threat from relentless Viking invasions. He dedicated several years to actively resisting and engaging these formidable Norse armies. His perseverance culminated in a decisive victory at the Battle of Edington in 878 AD. This crucial triumph forced the Viking leader Guthrum to negotiate. The ensuing agreement, famously known as the Treaty of Wedmore (though not explicitly named in the original text, it is the historical context for the division), effectively partitioned England. This division established Anglo-Saxon territory primarily in the south and west, and the Viking-ruled Danelaw in the north, which encompassed areas such as northern England, the north-east Midlands, and East Anglia. A notable outcome of this accord was Alfred's oversight of the conversion of Guthrum and many of his followers to Christianity, a strategic move that helped integrate the Viking population and solidify peace.

Through his strategic military actions and astute diplomacy, Alfred not only defended his kingdom against the formidable Viking attempt at conquest but also emerged as the dominant ruler in England. Much of the detailed understanding of his life, his campaigns, and his character comes from the invaluable work of Asser, a 9th-century Welsh scholar and bishop, whose biography, "Life of King Alfred," serves as a primary historical source.

A Visionary Ruler: Reforms and Legacy

Beyond his military prowess, Alfred is renowned for his intellectual curiosity, compassionate nature, and remarkable level-headedness. He fostered a culture of learning and actively encouraged education throughout his realm. A revolutionary proponent of vernacular education, he advocated that primary education be conducted in Old English rather than the prevailing ecclesiastical Latin, making knowledge more accessible to his people. His commitment to national improvement extended to significant reforms of the legal system, including the compilation of his law code, the Doom Book, which drew upon existing laws but was organized to be more coherent and just. He also profoundly improved the military structure, establishing a system of burhs (fortified settlements) and reorganizing the fyrd (militia), enhancing the kingdom's defensive capabilities. These comprehensive reforms aimed to uplift his people's quality of life and laid groundwork for the future stability and development of England.

The Enduring Epithet: "Alfred the Great"

Alfred's profound impact and wide-ranging accomplishments were formally recognized centuries after his death. The epithet "the Great" was bestowed upon him in the 16th century, cementing his legacy as one of England's most influential and revered monarchs.

The Pivotal Battle of Ashdown (871 AD)

The Battle of Ashdown represents a significant West Saxon victory over a formidable Danish Viking army, fought on approximately 8 January 871 AD. The precise location of this historic clash remains a subject of debate among historians, with potential sites including Kingstanding Hill in Berkshire, or an area near Starveall, located a short distance north of the village of Aldworth and southeast of Lowbury Hill.

The Viking Campaign Against Wessex

By 870 AD, the Viking Great Heathen Army had already achieved significant conquests, subjugating two of the four primary Anglo-Saxon kingdoms: Northumbria and East Anglia. At the close of 870, they initiated a determined campaign to conquer Wessex, the last unconquered Anglo-Saxon kingdom. The Viking forces marched from East Anglia, arriving at Reading around 28 December. Their advance immediately led to engagements with the West Saxon defenses. Just three days after their arrival, a large Viking foraging party was dispatched, only to be decisively defeated by an army of local levies under the command of Æthelwulf, Ealdorman of Berkshire, at the Battle of Englefield. However, this initial success was short-lived. Only four days later, the main West Saxon army, led by King Æthelred and his younger brother, the future King Alfred the Great, suffered a defeat at the Battle of Reading.

Ashdown: A Desperate Stand

Undeterred, the West Saxon forces, led by King Æthelred and Prince Alfred, engaged the Vikings again four days later, on approximately 8 January, at Ashdown. The Vikings, commanded by their kings Bagsecg and Halfdan, along with their earls, arrived at the battleground first. They strategically deployed their forces along the top of a ridge, gaining a crucial tactical advantage. Their army was divided into two contingents: one under the direct command of their kings, Bagsecg and Halfdan, and the other under their formidable earls. When West Saxon scouts relayed this information, the Anglo-Saxon commanders decided to mirror the Viking formation, with King Æthelred preparing to face the Viking kings and Alfred positioned against the earls.

Tactical Formations and Alfred's Audacity

As the battle was about to commence, a critical moment unfolded. King Æthelred retired to his tent to hear Mass, leaving Alfred and his contingent facing the full weight of the Danish army. Despite the immense pressure and the risk of being outflanked and overwhelmed by the entire Viking force, Alfred, with remarkable courage and decisive leadership, chose to attack. He led his men in a bold charge uphill against the Viking positions. The battle then raged ferociously around a small thorn tree, a landmark mentioned in historical accounts. Despite the initial disadvantage, the West Saxons ultimately achieved a resounding victory.

A Hard-Won Victory and Its Aftermath

While both the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and Asser's "Life of King Alfred" emphasize Alfred's crucial role and personal bravery in this victory, historian Richard Abels suggests that King Æthelred's subsequent joining of the battle and his attack were decisive, possibly even intended all along to surprise the Vikings. Regardless, the Danes suffered heavy losses, including the death of their king, Bagsecg, and five of their earls: Sidroc the Old, Sidroc the Younger, Osbern, Fræna, and Harold. The West Saxons relentlessly pursued the fleeing Vikings until nightfall, inflicting further casualties. However, this significant victory proved to be tragically short-lived, as it was followed by two subsequent West Saxon defeats at the Battles of Basing and Meretun. Shortly after Easter, which fell on 15 April in that fateful year, King Æthelred died, and Alfred succeeded him as King of the West Saxons, inheriting the immense challenge of defending his kingdom.

Chronology of the 871 Campaign

The sequence of these critical battles in 871 AD can be approximately dated due to the death of Bishop Heahmund of Sherborne, who fell during the Battle of Meretun on 22 March 871. Using this fixed point, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle provides a chronological framework for the preceding engagements:

• The Battle of Basing: Approximately two months before Meretun, placing it around 22 January 871.
• The Battle of Ashdown: Fourteen days before Basing, approximately 8 January 871.
• The Battle of Reading: Four days before Ashdown, around 4 January 871.
• The Battle of Englefield: Another four days earlier, around 31 December 870.
• The arrival of the Vikings in Reading: Three days before Englefield, approximately 28 December 870.

It is important to note that while these dates provide a valuable sequence, the "two month" interval between Meretun and Basing, as recorded, is likely not exact. Therefore, the earlier dates are approximations, reflecting the best historical estimates of this tumultuous period.

Frequently Asked Questions About Alfred the Great and the Battle of Ashdown

What was Alfred the Great known for?

Alfred the Great is primarily known for his successful defense of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Wessex against Viking invasions, his role in the establishment of the Danelaw, and his extensive reforms in education, law, and military structure, which significantly improved the quality of life for his people and laid foundations for a unified England.

What was the significance of the Battle of Edington?

The Battle of Edington in 878 AD was a decisive victory for Alfred's forces over the Viking army led by Guthrum. It effectively ended the major Viking threat to Wessex and led to the Treaty of Wedmore, which defined the boundaries between Anglo-Saxon and Viking-controlled territories in England (the Danelaw).

What was the Danelaw?

The Danelaw was a historical region in England, primarily in the north and east, where Viking law and customs predominated. It was established following the Treaty of Wedmore in 878 AD, dividing England between Anglo-Saxon control and Viking rule after Alfred's victory at Edington.

Why is Alfred called "the Great"?

Alfred earned the epithet "the Great" in the 16th century due to his extraordinary achievements as a military leader, his visionary reforms in law and education, his role in preserving Anglo-Saxon culture, and his success in laying the groundwork for a unified English kingdom during a period of intense Viking pressure.

Where did the Battle of Ashdown take place?

The exact location of the Battle of Ashdown, fought in 871 AD, is not definitively known. Historical suggestions include Kingstanding Hill in Berkshire, or an area near Starveall, north of Aldworth and southeast of Lowbury Hill.

Who led the West Saxons at the Battle of Ashdown?

The West Saxons at the Battle of Ashdown were led by King Æthelred and his younger brother, Alfred, who would later become Alfred the Great. Their combined leadership secured a crucial, though temporary, victory against the Viking forces.