A Comprehensive List of Byzantine Emperors

This detailed list encompasses the legitimate rulers of the Byzantine Empire, conventionally known as the Eastern Roman Empire, tracing its remarkable 1123-year history from the foundation of Constantinople in 330 AD to its ultimate fall to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 AD. The selection criteria are strict: only emperors recognized as legitimate rulers who exercised full sovereign authority are included. This excludes junior co-emperors, often referred to as symbasileis, who never achieved the status of sole or senior ruler, as well as various usurpers or rebels who merely claimed the imperial title without established, recognized authority.

The Genesis of the Byzantine State: Constantine the Great

Our comprehensive list commences with Constantine I, widely known as Constantine the Great, a pivotal figure in both Roman and Christian history. He stands as the first Roman emperor to embrace Christianity, marking a profound shift in the empire's religious landscape. His most enduring legacy is the monumental rebuilding and re-dedication of the ancient Greek city of Byzantium, transforming it into a magnificent imperial capital, Nova Roma, or more popularly, Constantinople (the "City of Constantine"), inaugurated on May 11, 330 AD. Later Byzantine emperors often revered Constantine as the quintessential model ruler, recognizing his foundational contributions.

It was under Constantine's transformative reign that the defining characteristics of what we now identify as the Byzantine state crystallized. These included:

• A Roman Polity Centered at Constantinople: While geographically distinct from old Rome, Constantinople inherited and perpetuated Roman legal traditions, administrative structures, and political concepts. It was perceived as the "New Rome."
• Cultural Dominance by the Greek East: Although the empire retained its Roman identity, Greek became the predominant administrative and cultural language, supplanting Latin over time. Hellenistic culture, philosophy, and learning flourished within this Roman framework.
• Christianity as the State Religion: Following Constantine's Edict of Milan in 313 AD, which granted religious tolerance, and Theodosius I's decree in 380 AD, Christianity became the official state religion. This fusion of imperial power with Christian doctrine led to the unique concept of "Caesaropapism," where the emperor held significant authority in ecclesiastical matters, often acting as God's representative on Earth.

The Roman Legacy and the Imperial Succession

The Byzantine Empire was, in essence, the direct and legal continuation of the eastern half of the Roman Empire, following the definitive administrative division of the Roman Empire in 395 AD, orchestrated by Emperor Theodosius I to manage its vast territories more effectively. Consequently, emperors listed up to Theodosius I in 395 AD were either sole or joint rulers of the entire Roman Empire. It is crucial to remember that the Western Roman Empire continued its existence, albeit precariously, until its conventional end in 476 AD with the deposition of Romulus Augustulus by the Germanic chieftain Odoacer.

The emperors ruling from Constantinople steadfastly considered themselves the rightful and legitimate Roman emperors, tracing their uninterrupted succession directly back to the venerable Augustus, the first Roman emperor. The term "Byzantine" itself was not used by these emperors or their subjects; it was a coinage of Western historiography, introduced much later in the 16th century by German historian Hieronymus Wolf in his work Corpus Historiae Byzantinae, to differentiate the medieval Greek-speaking empire from the ancient Latin-speaking Roman Empire.

The uncontested use of the title "Roman Emperor" by rulers from Constantinople faced its most significant challenge only after the momentous Papal coronation of the Frankish king Charlemagne as "Holy Roman Emperor" by Pope Leo III on Christmas Day, 800 AD. This audacious act was partly a diplomatic maneuver and partly a direct response to the controversial Byzantine coronation of Empress Irene, whose claim to the imperial throne, as a woman, was not recognized as legitimate by Pope Leo III, who deemed the imperial throne vacant.

The Emperor's Divine Authority and Practical Power

In practice, the Byzantine emperor operated within a sophisticated Hellenistic political system, imbued with profound Christian theological principles. The emperor was believed to have been granted total power directly by God, making him the ultimate shaper of the state and its subjects. Functioning as the supreme authority and legislator of the empire, all his imperial endeavors were perceived as an imitation of the sacred, divine kingdom of God. Moreover, in alignment with Christian principles, the emperor was considered the ultimate benefactor and protector of his people, tasked with upholding justice and ensuring their welfare.

A Notable Figure: Emperor Flavius Zeno

Flavius Zeno (Greek: Ζήνων; born c. 425 AD, died April 9, 491 AD) served as Eastern Roman emperor for two distinct periods: from 474 to 475 AD and again from 476 to 491 AD. His reign was marked by considerable domestic turmoil, including numerous revolts and deep-seated religious dissension, particularly over the nature of Christ. Despite these internal challenges, Zeno achieved notable successes in foreign policy, often through shrewd diplomacy and strategic alliances.

Crucially, Zeno's second reign witnessed the formal end of the Western Roman Empire. In 476 AD, the Germanic chieftain Odoacer deposed the last Western Roman Emperor, Romulus Augustulus, effectively dissolving the direct imperial line in the West. Although Zeno initially refused to recognize Odoacer's rule, he eventually acknowledged him as his patricius (a Roman aristocratic title), establishing a nominal suzerainty over Italy. The death of the deposed Western Emperor Julius Nepos in 480 AD further solidified Zeno's position as the sole surviving Roman emperor. Zeno is widely credited with contributing significantly to stabilizing the Eastern Empire during a period of immense fragmentation and barbarian pressure.

In the realm of ecclesiastical history, Zeno is notably associated with the "Henotikon" or "instrument of union," a theological edict he promulgated in 482 AD. This decree was an attempt to reconcile the deep divisions caused by the Monophysite controversy, a theological dispute concerning the nature of Christ (Monophysites believed Christ had a single, divine nature, while Chalcedonians affirmed two natures, human and divine, united in one person). While the Henotikon was signed by all Eastern bishops, it proved to be widely unpopular, failing to satisfy either the orthodox Chalcedonians or the extreme Monophysites. Consequently, it exacerbated the Acacian Schism with the See of Rome and was eventually abandoned under the subsequent reign of Emperor Justin I.

Frequently Asked Questions About Byzantine Emperors

When did the Byzantine Empire officially begin and end?

The Byzantine Empire conventionally began with the foundation of Constantinople in 330 AD and concluded with its fall to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 AD, making its duration over 11 centuries.

Why is it called the "Byzantine Empire" if its rulers called themselves "Roman Emperors"?

The term "Byzantine" was a later invention by Western European historians in the 16th century to differentiate the medieval Greek-speaking Eastern Roman Empire from the ancient Latin-speaking Roman Empire. The Byzantines themselves always identified as Romans.

Who was Constantine the Great and why is he significant?

Constantine the Great was the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity. He founded Constantinople as the new capital, initiating the blend of Roman political structure, Greek culture, and Christian faith that defined the Byzantine Empire.

What was the "Henotikon" and why was it important during Emperor Zeno's reign?

The Henotikon was an edict issued by Emperor Zeno in 482 AD aimed at resolving the Monophysite controversy regarding the nature of Christ. While intended to foster unity, it ultimately proved unpopular and contributed to a schism with the Papacy.

How did the Byzantine Emperors view their authority?

Byzantine Emperors believed their power was divinely ordained by God, making them the ultimate authority and legislator on Earth. They saw themselves as protectors of their people and imitators of God's sacred kingdom.