Once a sovereign state, South Vietnam, officially known as the Republic of Vietnam (RVN), or Việt Nam Cộng Hòa in Vietnamese, played a pivotal role in 20th-century geopolitical dynamics. Existing from 1955 to 1975, it stood as a key member of the Western Bloc during a significant portion of the Cold War, carving out its place in the southern part of Vietnam's landscape.

The Genesis and Brief History of the Republic of Vietnam

The origins of South Vietnam can be traced back to 1949, when it first received international recognition as the State of Vietnam within the larger French Union, with its vibrant capital at Saigon (a city later renamed Ho Chi Minh City in 1976). This period followed the tumultuous end of the Second World War, which saw the rise of anti-Japanese Việt Minh guerrilla forces under the leadership of the communist figure Ho Chi Minh, who proclaimed the Democratic Republic of Vietnam in Hanoi in September 1945. In response, anti-communist politicians formed a rival government in Saigon in 1949, led by the former emperor Bảo Đại. The decisive shift occurred in 1955: a highly contested referendum on the state's future government led to Bảo Đại's deposal by Prime Minister Ngô Đình Diệm. Diệm, a formidable figure, then proclaimed himself president of the new republic on October 26, 1955.

Geographically, South Vietnam shared borders with North Vietnam to its north, Laos to the northwest, Cambodia to the southwest, and Thailand across the Gulf of Thailand also to the southwest. Its sovereignty was acknowledged by the United States and 87 other nations, although a Soviet veto in 1957 unfortunately prevented its admission into the United Nations. Following the 1954 Geneva Conference, South Vietnam formally abandoned its claims to the northern territories, establishing its full sovereignty over the southern half, which encompassed Cochinchina (Nam Kỳ), a former French colony, and parts of Annam (Trung Kỳ), a former French protectorate.

The Republic of Vietnam Amidst the Vietnam War

The life of the Republic of Vietnam was inextricably linked with the devastating conflict known as the Vietnam War. The war’s beginnings are often marked by a 1955 uprising orchestrated by the newly formed National Liberation Front for South Vietnam, commonly known as the Việt Cộng. These guerrilla forces were heavily armed and supported by North Vietnam, with substantial backing from major communist powers like China and the Soviet Union. The conflict saw a dramatic escalation in 1965 with significant American intervention, introducing regular forces of US Marines, followed by US Army units, all deployed to bolster the cadre of military advisors guiding the Southern armed forces.

The scale of the conflict grew rapidly. A relentless bombing campaign over North Vietnam was waged through 1966 and 1967 by offshore US Navy airplanes, warships, and aircraft carriers, alongside Air Force squadrons. Fighting reached an intense peak during the momentous Tet Offensive in February 1968, a period when over a million South Vietnamese soldiers and approximately 500,000 US soldiers were stationed in South Vietnam. What began as a guerrilla war gradually transformed into a more conventional struggle as the balance of power shifted. Later, after a significant withdrawal of US ground forces, the North launched an even larger, armored invasion during the Easter Offensive, which nearly overran several major northern cities before being fiercely repelled.

Leadership within South Vietnam was also turbulent. President Diệm’s rule ended abruptly in 1963 when he was killed in a military coup led by General Dương Văn Minh, with assistance from the CIA. This was followed by a series of short-lived military governments. Eventually, General Nguyễn Văn Thiệu assumed leadership after a US-encouraged civilian presidential election, governing the country from 1967 until its ultimate fall in 1975.

Despite the signing of a truce agreement under the Paris Peace Accords in January 1973, following five years of on-and-off negotiations, the fighting regrettably resumed almost immediately. In 1975, the regular North Vietnamese army, alongside its Việt-Cộng auxiliaries, launched a decisive, major second conventional invasion. Communist forces triumphantly overran Saigon on April 30, 1975, a date that signified the end of the Republic of Vietnam. A little over a year later, on July 2, 1976, the North Vietnam-controlled Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam and the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) officially merged to form the unified Socialist Republic of Vietnam.

A Nation in Turmoil: The Buddhist Uprising of 1966

Amidst the broader canvas of the Vietnam War, South Vietnam experienced significant internal strife, exemplified by the Buddhist Uprising of 1966. Known in Vietnamese as Ni dy Pht gio 1966, or more commonly as the Crisis in Central Vietnam (Bin ng Min Trung), this period was characterized by intense civil and military unrest. It was largely concentrated in the I Corps area, a region in central Vietnam recognized as a heartland of Vietnamese Buddhism. Here, activist Buddhist monks and civilians found themselves at the vanguard of opposition against the series of military juntas governing the nation, simultaneously voicing profound concerns about the escalating Vietnam War.

The roots of this discontent ran deep, stemming partly from the earlier rule of the Catholic Ngô Đình Diệm. His administration’s perceived discrimination against the majority Buddhist population inadvertently spurred the growth of Buddhist institutions as they sought greater political participation and fairer treatment. By 1965, following a succession of military coups that had destabilized the country after Diệm's fall in 1963, Air Marshal Nguyễn Cao Kỳ and General Nguyễn Văn Thiệu managed to establish a relatively stable junta, serving as Prime Minister and figurehead Chief of State, respectively. However, this Kỳ-Thiệu regime was initially almost feudal in structure, functioning more as an alliance of powerful warlords where each corps commander treated his assigned area as a personal fiefdom, remitting only a portion of collected taxes to the central government in Saigon. Suspicion and tension between the Buddhist and Catholic factions remained a pervasive undercurrent in Vietnamese society during this time.

The immediate catalyst for the 1966 uprising was a power struggle between Prime Minister Kỳ and General Nguyễn Chánh Thi, the popular commander of I Corps. Thi, a Buddhist native to the region, was a strong-willed and capable officer, viewed by Kỳ and others within the junta as a formidable threat. In February 1966, Kỳ attended a summit in Honolulu, emerging convinced he had secured American support to neutralize Thi. Consequently, in March 1966, Kỳ summarily fired Thi, ordering his exile to the United States under the spurious pretext of medical treatment. This abrupt move ignited widespread civil protests among civilians and even some units within I Corps, leading them to halt military operations against the Viet Cong. Kỳ's gamble of allowing Thi to return to I Corps before departing for the US backfired dramatically, as the general's presence in his native area only intensified anti-Kỳ sentiment. Buddhist activists, students, and Thi loyalists within the military coalesced into the "Struggle Movement," passionately demanding a return to civilian rule and free elections. In the midst of this, Thi remained in I Corps, refusing to leave, as strikes and protests paralyzed civilian activity, government radio stations were seized for anti-Kỳ propaganda, and military operations ceased. The unrest was not confined to central Vietnam; riots also spread to the capital, Saigon, and other cities further south.

In early April, Kỳ made his move. He controversially declared Da Nang, the main center in I Corps, to be under communist control and publicly threatened to kill its mayor, who had shown sympathy for the Struggle Movement. Kỳ dispatched military forces into the city and traveled there himself to prepare for an assault. Yet, recognizing he lacked the strength to crush the opposition outright, he was forced to withdraw and initiate discussions with Buddhist leaders. During this tense period, Kỳ also replaced Thi's successor, Nguyễn Văn Chuẩn, with Tôn Thất Đính, seeking a firmer hand to regain control. Đính claimed to have calmed the situation, but Kỳ perceived this as appeasement. On May 15, Kỳ's forces decisively drove off Đính and took full control. American forces had also become entangled in the standoff during the preceding month, and their participation was widely seen by the Struggle Movement as biased towards Kỳ, resulting in several tense confrontations.

Through the latter half of May, Kỳ's forces pressed their advantage, gradually eroding the strength of the Struggle Movement and the rebel I Corps units, despite some American objections that his aggressive tactics could lead to excessive collateral damage. At one point, Kỳ's forces even clashed with American units, and later, US forces found themselves mediating a standoff between the Vietnamese factions over a mined bridge. As Kỳ's forces ultimately retook Da Nang and Huế in intense street fighting, many Struggle Movement supporters interpreted American intervention as overtly pro-Kỳ, triggering anti-US riots that saw several American buildings set ablaze. Kỳ’s triumph effectively curtailed the Buddhist movement's influence on national politics. Its prominent leader, Thích Trí Quang, was subsequently placed under house arrest, while General Thi ultimately departed for the US.

Frequently Asked Questions About South Vietnam and the Buddhist Uprising

Q: What was South Vietnam?

A: South Vietnam, officially the Republic of Vietnam, was a country that existed from 1955 to 1975. It was a Western Bloc member during the Cold War, recognized by many nations but not the UN due to a Soviet veto. Its capital was Saigon, later renamed Ho Chi Minh City.

Q: When did the Vietnam War begin for South Vietnam?

A: The beginnings of the Vietnam War are often marked by an uprising in 1955 by the Việt Cộng (National Liberation Front for South Vietnam), who were armed and supported by North Vietnam with backing from China and the Soviet Union.

Q: Who was Ngô Đình Diệm?

A: Ngô Đình Diệm was the Prime Minister who deposed Emperor Bảo Đại and proclaimed himself president of the new Republic of Vietnam on October 26, 1955. His rule ended in 1963 when he was killed in a military coup.

Q: What was the Buddhist Uprising of 1966?

A: Also known as the Crisis in Central Vietnam, it was a period of significant civil and military unrest in South Vietnam's I Corps area. Buddhist monks and civilians protested against the military junta led by Nguyễn Cao Kỳ and Nguyễn Văn Thiệu, particularly triggered by the dismissal of popular I Corps commander Nguyễn Chánh Thi, and questioned the escalation of the Vietnam War.

Q: When did South Vietnam fall?

A: South Vietnam officially ceased to exist on April 30, 1975, when communist forces from North Vietnam overran its capital, Saigon. The country then merged with North Vietnam to form the Socialist Republic of Vietnam on July 2, 1976.