The **Peninsular War**, a brutal and transformative military conflict spanning from 1807 to 1814, saw the Iberian Peninsula become a crucible where the combined forces of Spain, Portugal, and the United Kingdom clashed fiercely against the might of the invading and occupying armies of the First French Empire. This struggle, deeply intertwined with the broader **Napoleonic Wars**, holds a unique place in Spanish history, where it is often referred to as the **Spanish War of Independence**.

The Seeds of Conflict and Napoleon's Ambitions

The war's origins trace back to 1807 when French and Spanish forces initially collaborated, transiting through Spain to invade and occupy Portugal. However, the situation dramatically escalated in 1808. Following this initial campaign, **Napoleonic France**, previously an ally of Spain, turned its gaze upon its partner. Emperor **Napoleon Bonaparte** orchestrated a political upheaval, forcing the abdications of King Ferdinand VII and his father, Charles IV. In their place, he installed his own brother, **Joseph Bonaparte**, on the Spanish throne and promulgated the controversial **Bayonne Constitution**. This imposition of French rule, however, was vehemently rejected by the vast majority of Spaniards, igniting a popular uprising that would spiral into a prolonged and bloody war to reclaim their sovereignty.

Guerrilla Warfare and the "Spanish Ulcer"

The conflict in Spain truly began with the iconic **Dos de Mayo Uprising** on May 2, 1808. This spontaneous act of defiance symbolized the Spanish people's refusal to accept foreign dominion. The war on the peninsula proved to be a heavy burden for France's formidable Grande Armée, so much so that Napoleon himself famously dubbed it the "**Spanish Ulcer**." While French forces often triumphed in conventional battles, their communications and supply lines were constantly stretched thin. Their units frequently found themselves isolated, harassed, or outright overwhelmed by partisans engaged in intense **guerrilla warfare**, a new and devastating form of conflict characterized by relentless raids and ambushes. The regular Spanish armies, though repeatedly beaten and pushed to the peripheries, consistently regrouped, tirelessly hounding and demoralizing the French troops. This constant drain on French resources, coupled with the popular uprising, created a total war that Napoleon had inadvertently provoked, weakening his empire significantly.

The Role of Allied Intervention and Strategic Defense

The French occupation systematically dismantled the existing Spanish administration, leading to a fragmentation into quarreling provincial juntas. A reconstituted national government, known as the **Cortes of Cádiz**, effectively a government-in-exile, managed to fortify itself in the secure port city of Cádiz in 1810. Despite being besieged by a formidable force of 70,000 French troops, the Cortes became a symbol of resistance, though it struggled to raise effective armies. It was the combined might of British and Portuguese forces that eventually secured Portugal, transforming it into a vital safe haven. From this strategic position, under the astute leadership of then Lieutenant General Sir **Arthur Wellesley**, who would later become the legendary **1st Duke of Wellington**, campaigns were launched against the French army in Spain. The British and reformed Portuguese armies, reorganized and refitted under the command of General **William Beresford** (appointed by the exiled Portuguese royal family), fought as a cohesive **Anglo-Portuguese Army** under Wellesley's overall command. Their efforts, combined with whatever supplies they could funnel to the Spanish, along with the tireless efforts of Spanish regular armies and **guerrillas**, tied down vast numbers of Napoleon's troops. This collective allied effort, employing both regular and irregular forces, significantly restricted French territorial control, preventing Napoleon's marshals from fully subduing the rebellious Spanish provinces and prolonging the war into years of stalemate.

Turning the Tide: The March to Victory (1812-1814)

The strategic landscape shifted dramatically in 1812. As Napoleon embarked on his ill-fated and disastrous invasion of Russia with a massive army, the combined allied forces under Wellington seized the opportunity. They pushed deep into Spain, scoring a significant victory against the French at the **Battle of Salamanca** and subsequently recapturing the capital, **Madrid**. The following year brought another decisive allied triumph: Wellington's forces achieved a crushing victory over King **Joseph Bonaparte's** army in the pivotal **Battle of Vitoria**. Pursued relentlessly by the armies of Britain, Spain, and Portugal, **Marshal Jean-de-Dieu Soult**, whose depleted forces were no longer receiving sufficient support from a crumbling France, led his exhausted and demoralized French troops in a fighting withdrawal across the **Pyrenees** during the brutal winter of 1813–1814. The Peninsular War officially concluded on April 17, 1814, with the ultimate defeat of Napoleon's Sixth Coalition and the restoration of Ferdinand VII to the Spanish monarchy.

The Battle of Redinha: A Masterclass in Rearguard Action

Among the countless skirmishes and engagements of the Peninsular War, the **Battle of Redinha** on March 12, 1811, stands out as a remarkable example of a rearguard action during **Masséna's retreat** from Portugal. Here, a French division under the audacious **Marshal Ney**, with approximately 7,000 troops, confronted a significantly larger Anglo-Portuguese force of 25,000 men under Wellington. Redinha was the second and most successful rearguard action fought during Masséna's withdrawal from the **Lines of Torres Vedras** in the spring of 1811. Having successfully held off the British at Pombal the previous day, Marshal Ney and his rearguard had strategically fallen back to Redinha. He adopted an apparently vulnerable position, with Mermet's division situated on a plateau south of the village and Marchand's division north of the village, on the far side of the Ancos River, connected only by a narrow bridge. Despite the seemingly exposed setup, Wellington was acutely aware that he was in close proximity to much larger French formations and thus proceeded with extreme caution. Ney's skillful tactics allowed him to delay the Allied advance for a crucial day, buying valuable time for the main body of the French army to continue its withdrawal.

Legacy and Lasting Impact

The **Peninsular War** is recognized as one of the first wars of national liberation and is profoundly significant for the emergence of large-scale **guerrilla warfare**, a tactic that would influence conflicts for centuries to come. In Spain, the episode remains the bloodiest event in its modern history, proportionally exceeding the casualties of the Spanish Civil War. Beyond the battlefield, the war and the subsequent revolution against Napoleon's occupation culminated in the promulgation of the **Spanish Constitution of 1812** by the Cortes of Cádiz, a landmark document that became a cornerstone of European liberalism. However, the immense burden of the war utterly destroyed the social and economic fabric of both Portugal and Spain. It ushered in an era marked by profound social turbulence, increased political instability, and economic stagnation. Devastating civil wars between liberal and absolutist factions, often led by officers forged in the crucible of the Peninsular War, continued to plague Iberia until as late as 1850. Furthermore, the cumulative crises and disruptions caused by invasion, revolution, and restoration were a major catalyst for the independence of most of Spain's American colonies and the eventual independence of Brazil, which, after severing ties with Portugal, notably remained a monarchy.

Frequently Asked Questions About the Peninsular War

What was the Peninsular War?

The Peninsular War was a military conflict from 1807 to 1814 in the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal) where Spain, Portugal, and the United Kingdom fought against the invading and occupying forces of Napoleon's First French Empire during the Napoleonic Wars.

When did the Peninsular War take place?

The war lasted from 1807 to 1814.

Who were the main combatants in the Peninsular War?

The primary combatants were Spain, Portugal, and the United Kingdom on one side, and the First French Empire on the other.

Why did the Peninsular War start?

It began with a joint French and Spanish invasion of Portugal in 1807. It escalated significantly in 1808 when Napoleon's France, formerly an ally, occupied Spain, deposed King Ferdinand VII and Charles IV, and installed Joseph Bonaparte on the Spanish throne, which most Spaniards rejected.

What was the "Spanish War of Independence"?

This is the name given to the Peninsular War within Spain, highlighting the Spanish people's struggle to free themselves from French occupation and restore their monarchy.

What was the significance of guerrilla warfare in the Peninsular War?

The Peninsular War is highly significant for the emergence of large-scale guerrilla warfare, where Spanish partisans, through raids and ambushes, constantly harassed and wore down French forces, significantly contributing to their defeat despite French battlefield victories. Napoleon famously called it the "Spanish Ulcer."

Who was Arthur Wellesley (Duke of Wellington) in the Peninsular War?

Arthur Wellesley, later the 1st Duke of Wellington, was the British general who commanded the Anglo-Portuguese Army, playing a crucial role in securing Portugal and leading decisive campaigns against the French in Spain, including the Battles of Salamanca and Vitoria.

What were some key outcomes or legacies of the Peninsular War?

Key outcomes include the defeat of Napoleon's forces, the restoration of the Spanish monarchy, the promulgation of the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812, immense destruction and social turbulence in Iberia, and a major catalyst for the independence movements in most of Spain's American colonies and Brazil.