The **American Civil War**, a monumental and harrowing period in United States history, unfolded between April 12, 1861, and May 9, 1865. This bitter internal conflict pitted the **Union**, comprising states that steadfastly upheld their loyalty to the federal government – often referred to as "the North" – against the **Confederacy**, a coalition of states from "the South" that had chosen to secede from the nation. At its heart, the war was fundamentally about the contentious issue of slavery, particularly its potential expansion into newly acquired territories following the Louisiana Purchase and the Mexican–American War. Indeed, on the eve of this devastating conflict in 1860, a staggering four million of America's 32 million residents—roughly 13% of the population—were enslaved Black people, almost exclusively concentrated in the Southern states. The institution of slavery had festered as one of the 19th century's most divisive political issues, leading to decades of escalating unrest that ultimately culminated in war.

The die was cast after Abraham Lincoln secured the 1860 United States presidential election, running on a clear anti-slavery expansion platform. This victory triggered the immediate secession of seven Southern slave states, which then banded together to form the Confederacy. These newly declared Confederate states promptly seized federal forts situated within their claimed territories. A last-ditch effort to avert disaster, the Crittenden Compromise, proved futile, and both sides braced for the inevitable. Hostilities finally erupted in April 1861 with the Confederate army's assault on Fort Sumter in South Carolina, a mere month after Lincoln's first inauguration. The Confederacy quickly expanded its reach, coming to control a majority of territory across eleven of the then 34 U.S. states and asserting claims over two more. Both the Union and the Confederacy rapidly mobilized vast armies, relying on a mix of volunteers and conscription, setting the stage for four years of brutal combat, predominantly fought on Southern soil.

The War's Early Years and Shifting Tides (1861-1864)

The early years of the war saw distinct patterns emerge. Throughout 1861 and 1862, the Union achieved significant and lasting gains in the Western Theater, gradually extending its control. In stark contrast, the Eastern Theater experienced largely inconclusive fighting, characterized by bloody but indecisive battles. A pivotal moment arrived on January 1, 1863, when President Lincoln issued the **Emancipation Proclamation**. This transformative decree not only shifted the war's moral compass by making the abolition of slavery a central Union war goal but also declared all enslaved persons in rebellious states "forever free."

Meanwhile, in the west, Union forces systematically dismantled the Confederate river navy by the summer of 1862, severely crippling much of its western armies and seizing the crucial port city of New Orleans. The following year, the successful Union siege of Vicksburg in 1863 proved strategically vital, effectively splitting the Confederacy in two along the mighty Mississippi River. Concurrently, in the east, Confederate General **Robert E. Lee's** audacious incursion north was decisively halted at the **Battle of Gettysburg**, a turning point that marked the high tide of the Confederacy. These crucial Western successes ultimately led to General **Ulysses S. Grant's** appointment in 1864 as commander of all Union armies. With an ever-tightening naval blockade strangling Confederate ports, the Union relentlessly marshaled its superior resources and manpower to launch a multi-front assault on the Confederacy. This culminated in the fall of Atlanta in 1864 to Union General **William Tecumseh Sherman** and his infamous "March to the Sea," a campaign of total war designed to cripple the South's will to fight. The final major engagements of the war in the east raged around the grueling ten-month Siege of Petersburg, which served as the last gateway to the Confederate capital of Richmond.

The Confederacy's Legislative Branch: The Confederate Congress

Operating amidst the maelstrom of war was the **Confederate States Congress**, serving as both the provisional and then permanent legislative assembly for the Confederate States of America from 1861 to 1865. Its primary focus was on establishing a functioning new national government for the Southern "revolution" and, above all, on sustaining the ongoing war effort. Initially, it convened as a Provisional Congress in both Montgomery, Alabama, and later Richmond, Virginia. This precursor body was instrumental in formalizing the Confederacy as a state.

Following elections held in November 1861—even in refugee colonies and army camps—the 1st Confederate Congress began its work, meeting in four sessions. The 1863 midterm elections saw a notable shift, with many former Democrats losing their seats to former Whigs, reflecting internal political dynamics even as the war raged. The 2nd Confederate Congress, the final iteration, met in two sessions after an intersession break during the military campaign season, convening from November 7, 1864, until March 18, 1865, just weeks before the ultimate collapse of the Confederacy itself.

For the Confederate Congress, all legislative considerations were inherently secondary to the overriding objective of winning the **American Civil War**. This included intense debates over President **Jefferson Davis's** proposed war measures and deliberations on alternative administrative proposals, often drawing criticism for being discordant regardless of their outcome. The Congress frequently faced public disdain for its actions, or perceived inaction. During the early phases of the war, bolstered by battlefield victories, the demands placed on Confederate citizens were relatively light, and there was general agreement between the Confederate Congress and President Davis. However, as the war dragged into its second half, the Davis administration's programs became far more demanding. In response, the Confederate Congress became increasingly assertive in the law-making process, even before the pivotal 1863 elections. It began to modify administration proposals, substitute its own measures, and at times, outright refused to act. While it initiated few truly major policies, it often delved into the minute details of executive administration. Despite its profound devotion to Confederate independence, it faced criticism from Davis's supporters for its occasional independence and was censured by the dissenting press for not asserting itself more frequently against the executive.

The War's End and Lasting Impact

The **American Civil War** effectively drew to a close on April 9, 1865, when Confederate General **Robert E. Lee** surrendered his Army of Northern Virginia to Union General **Ulysses S. Grant** at Appomattox Court House, following the abandonment of Petersburg and Richmond. Other Confederate generals across the South soon followed suit, though scattered land forces continued to surrender until June 23, marking the true conclusion of organized hostilities. By the war's end, vast swathes of the South's infrastructure lay in ruins, with its critical railroad networks particularly devastated. The Confederacy collapsed entirely, the institution of slavery was abolished, and four million enslaved Black people were finally freed. The war-torn nation then embarked on the challenging **Reconstruction era**, a partially successful, yet profoundly difficult, attempt to rebuild the country and establish civil rights for the newly emancipated individuals.

The **Civil War** remains one of the most exhaustively studied and written-about episodes in U.S. history, a perpetual subject of cultural and historiographical debate. Of particular and enduring interest is the persisting myth of the "Lost Cause of the Confederacy," a narrative that often romanticizes the Southern cause and downplays slavery's central role. This war was also a grim harbinger of modern conflict, representing one of the earliest instances of industrial warfare. Innovations such as railroads, the telegraph, steamships, the ironclad warship, and mass-produced weapons saw widespread deployment, fundamentally altering the nature of combat. In total, the war claimed the lives of an estimated 620,000 to 750,000 soldiers, making it the deadliest military conflict in American history, alongside an unquantified number of civilian casualties. President Lincoln himself was assassinated a mere five days after Lee's surrender. The sheer scale of technological innovation and the brutal, widespread casualties of the Civil War tragically foreshadowed the World Wars that would engulf the globe decades later.

Frequently Asked Questions About the American Civil War

What was the American Civil War?

The **American Civil War** was a devastating internal conflict in the United States from 1861 to 1865, fought between the Union (the loyal Northern states) and the Confederacy (Southern states that seceded).

When did the Civil War begin and end?

The war officially began on April 12, 1861, with the Confederate attack on Fort Sumter, and effectively ended with General Robert E. Lee's surrender at Appomattox Court House on April 9, 1865, though some forces continued to surrender until June 23, 1865.

What was the primary cause of the Civil War?

The central cause of the **American Civil War** was the status of slavery, particularly its expansion into new territories, and the fundamental disagreement over states' rights versus federal authority regarding this institution.

Who were the key figures in the Civil War?

Prominent figures included President **Abraham Lincoln** (Union), President Jefferson Davis (Confederacy), Union Generals **Ulysses S. Grant** and **William Tecumseh Sherman**, and Confederate Generals **Robert E. Lee** and Stonewall Jackson.

What was the Emancipation Proclamation?

Issued by President Lincoln on January 1, 1863, the **Emancipation Proclamation** declared that all enslaved people in Confederate-held territory were to be "forever free," transforming the Union's war aims to include the abolition of slavery.

What were some significant battles or turning points?

Key turning points included the **Battle of Gettysburg** (1863), the Siege of Vicksburg (1863), and **Sherman's March to the Sea** (1864), which collectively shifted momentum decisively towards the Union.

What were the major outcomes or consequences of the Civil War?

The war resulted in the preservation of the United States, the abolition of slavery, the freeing of four million enslaved Black people, and the beginning of the **Reconstruction era** aimed at rebuilding the nation and integrating freed slaves into society. It remains the deadliest conflict in American history.