Marwan I, Umayyad general and caliph (d. 685)

Delving into the tumultuous early Islamic centuries, we encounter Marwan ibn al-Hakam, more commonly known as Marwan I. Born around 623 or 626 CE, he would rise to become the fourth Umayyad Caliph, though his reign, lasting less than a year from 684 to 685 CE, was profoundly impactful. It was Marwan I who established the formidable Marwanid ruling house, a pivotal moment that replaced the faltering Sufyanid line amidst the chaos of the Second Muslim Civil War, solidifying Umayyad power for another six and a half decades until 750 CE.

Early Life and Rise to Prominence

Marwan's journey through the nascent Islamic Caliphate was marked by both conflict and administrative acumen. During the caliphate of his esteemed cousin, Uthman (r. 644–656 CE), Marwan gained invaluable experience on various fronts. He participated in a significant military campaign against the Byzantine forces in the Exarchate of Africa, a vital territory in central North Africa. This expedition not only showcased his military prowess but also brought him substantial war spoils, enhancing his stature. Subsequently, his administrative talents were recognized, leading to his appointment as governor of Fars, a crucial southwestern region of Iran. Beyond provincial governance, Marwan served in the caliphal court itself, acting as Uthman's katib, or principal secretary/scribe, a position that placed him at the heart of state affairs.

His loyalty to Uthman was unwavering, even in the face of immense danger. When rebels laid siege to Uthman's residence, a tragic event that ultimately led to the caliph's assassination, Marwan stood firm, sustaining injuries while valiantly defending his kinsman. In the tumultuous period that followed, known as the First Muslim Civil War (Fitna), Marwan aligned himself with the partisans of A'isha against Ali, the fourth Rashidun Caliph, fighting notably at the Battle of the Camel. His career continued under Mu'awiya I (r. 661–680 CE), the founder of the Umayyad Caliphate and a distant kinsman, who appointed him as governor of Medina, the revered city of the Prophet.

The Second Muslim Civil War and Ascendancy to Caliph

The political landscape grew increasingly volatile during the reign of Mu'awiya's son and successor, Yazid I (r. 680–683 CE). Marwan played a crucial role in organizing the defense of the Umayyad realm in the Hejaz, western Arabia, against growing local opposition. However, after Yazid's sudden death in November 683 CE, the situation spiraled into the Second Muslim Civil War. Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, a prominent rebel figure based in Mecca, seized the opportunity to declare himself caliph, effectively challenging Umayyad authority. This led to Marwan's expulsion from the Hejaz, forcing him to seek refuge in Syria, the traditional stronghold of Umayyad power.

The stage was set for Marwan's unlikely ascension. With the death of the last Sufyanid caliph, Mu'awiya II, in 684 CE, the future of the Umayyad dynasty hung precariously. It was then that Marwan, encouraged by influential figures like Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad, the former governor of Iraq, presented his candidacy for the caliphate. At a critical summit of pro-Umayyad tribes held in Jabiya, the tribal nobility, spearheaded by Ibn Bahdal of the powerful Banu Kalb confederation, elected Marwan I as their new leader. This decision was swiftly followed by military action, as Marwan and his allies decisively defeated the pro-Zubayrid Qays tribes at the pivotal Battle of Marj Rahit in August of that same year, consolidating his claim to power.

A Brief but Decisive Reign

Though his caliphate was remarkably short, Marwan I demonstrated exceptional leadership and strategic acumen. In the ensuing months, he moved swiftly to reassert Umayyad rule across key territories that had defected to Ibn al-Zubayr. Egypt, Palestine, and northern Syria were brought back under the caliphal fold, while the potentially disruptive Qays tribes in the Jazira (Upper Mesopotamia) were carefully kept in check. His strategic vision extended to the east, as he dispatched an expedition led by Ibn Ziyad with the crucial mission to reconquer Zubayrid-held Iraq. However, fate intervened; Marwan I passed away in the spring of 685 CE, while this vital campaign was still underway.

Before his death, Marwan I skillfully secured the future of his newfound dynasty. He firmly established his sons in powerful positions: Abd al-Malik was designated as his successor, ensuring a smooth transition of power; Abd al-Aziz was appointed governor of wealthy Egypt; and Muhammad was entrusted with military command in Upper Mesopotamia. This strategic succession planning was a testament to his foresight.

Legacy and Historical Perspective

In later anti-Umayyad traditions, Marwan I was sometimes unfairly stigmatized as an outlaw and a progenitor of tyrannical rulers. However, modern historical scholarship, notably through the work of historians like Clifford E. Bosworth, offers a more nuanced and appreciative view. Bosworth asserts that Marwan I was, in reality, a shrewd, immensely capable, and decisive military leader and statesman. His brief but impactful reign successfully navigated the Umayyad Caliphate through one of its most perilous periods, effectively laying the foundations for its continued rule for another sixty-five years, a testament to his enduring legacy.

Frequently Asked Questions about Marwan I

Who was Marwan I?

Marwan I, whose full name was Marwan ibn al-Hakam, was the fourth Umayyad Caliph. He founded the Marwanid branch of the Umayyad dynasty, which governed the Islamic Caliphate from 684 to 750 CE.

When did Marwan I rule?

Marwan I ruled for a short but crucial period from 684 CE to 685 CE, less than a year, during which he stabilized the Umayyad Caliphate amidst the Second Muslim Civil War.

What was Marwan I famous for?

Marwan I is primarily famous for founding the Marwanid ruling house of the Umayyad dynasty, succeeding the Sufyanid line. He secured Umayyad power during a critical civil war, demonstrated strong military and administrative leadership, and strategically set up his sons for succession.

What was the Marwanid dynasty?

The Marwanid dynasty was the second ruling house of the Umayyad Caliphate, established by Marwan I. It ruled from 684 CE until the Abbasid Revolution in 750 CE, overseeing a period of significant expansion and consolidation of the Islamic empire.

What was the significance of the Battle of Marj Rahit?

The Battle of Marj Rahit in August 684 CE was a decisive victory for Marwan I and his pro-Umayyad allies (primarily the Banu Kalb) against the pro-Zubayrid Qays tribes. This victory solidified Marwan's claim to the caliphate and was crucial for re-establishing Umayyad authority in Syria.