The late 19th century witnessed a pivotal and transformative conflict in southeastern Europe and the Caucasus: the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878. Known in Turkey as the "93 Harbi," or "War of ’93," a reference to the year 1293 in the Islamic calendar, and in Russia as the "Russko-turetskaya voyna," this clash pitted the vast Ottoman Empire against a formidable coalition of Eastern Orthodox Christian nations. Led by the powerful Russian Empire, this alliance included the burgeoning states of Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro, all eager to assert their independence and influence in the region.

The roots of this profound conflict lay deep in the fertile ground of emerging 19th-century Balkan nationalism. For decades, the Ottoman Empire had seen its influence wane across its European territories, fueling aspirations for self-determination among its Christian subjects. Beyond this wave of nationalistic fervor, Russia harbored its own strategic objectives. It sought to reclaim territorial losses suffered during the Crimean War of 1853–56, re-establish its dominant presence in the Black Sea, and crucially, support the political movements actively striving to liberate the Balkan nations from centuries of Ottoman rule. This confluence of nationalist ambition and Great Power strategy set the stage for a dramatic confrontation that would reshape the map of Europe.

The Conflict and Its Immediate Aftermath

Fought across two primary theaters – the rugged terrain of the Balkans and the strategic passes of the Caucasus – the war was a brutal and decisive affair. The Russian-led coalition proved superior, systematically pushing the Ottoman forces back. Their advance was so relentless that they reached the very gates of Constantinople, the historic Ottoman capital, a development that sent shockwaves across Europe. This alarming proximity to the Ottoman heartland prompted the swift intervention of the Western European great powers, wary of Russia’s unchecked expansion and potential control over the vital Dardanelles Strait.

As the dust settled, the victorious Russian Empire secured significant territorial gains. In the Caucasus, it successfully claimed the provinces of Kars and Batum, strategic areas that bolstered its southern flank. Additionally, Russia annexed the Budjak region, further expanding its influence. For the Balkan nations, the war brought long-awaited freedom: the principalities of Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro, which had enjoyed de facto sovereignty for several years, now formally declared their complete independence from the Ottoman Empire. Perhaps most significantly, after almost five centuries of Ottoman domination, stretching from 1396 to 1878, an autonomous Bulgarian state finally emerged. This Principality of Bulgaria, forged with Russia’s vital military intervention and support, encompassed the land between the Danube River and the Balkan Mountains, with the significant exception of Northern Dobrudja, which was ceded to Romania. The historic city of Sofia became the new state’s vibrant capital, symbolizing a new era for the Bulgarian people.

The Treaty of San Stefano and European Intervention

The initial peace settlement, the Treaty of San Stefano, was signed on March 3, 1878, in a village west of Constantinople. For Bulgarians, this date is revered as Liberation Day, commemorating their newfound autonomy, although its celebration saw a dip in prominence during the Communist era. The treaty, negotiated between Count Nicholas Pavlovich Ignatiev and Aleksandr Nelidov for Russia, and Foreign Minister Saffet Pasha and Ambassador Sadullah Bey for the Ottoman Empire, was intended by Russia as a preliminary draft for a final settlement with other Great Powers. It envisioned an enlarged, almost "Greater Bulgaria," significantly extending its territory and influence in the Balkans.

However, this expansive vision for Bulgaria immediately alarmed not only its neighboring states, who feared its regional dominance, but also major European powers like France and Great Britain. They saw Russia’s growing influence in the Balkans as a direct threat to the delicate balance of power on the continent. Consequently, the provisions for an enlarged Bulgaria under the Treaty of San Stefano were never fully implemented. Just three months later, the great powers convened the Congress of Berlin, which led to a new settlement, the Treaty of Berlin. This revised treaty significantly scaled back Bulgaria's territorial claims, establishing a smaller, more manageable Principality. The Congress of Berlin also allowed Austria-Hungary to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina and granted Great Britain administrative control over Cyprus, further reshaping the geopolitical landscape and demonstrating the collective will of Europe’s leading nations to prevent any single power from gaining excessive influence in the strategically vital Balkans.

Frequently Asked Questions About the Russo-Turkish War

Who fought in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878?

The conflict involved the Ottoman Empire on one side, against an Eastern Orthodox Christian coalition led by the Russian Empire, and including Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro.

What were the primary causes of the war?

Key factors included emerging 19th-century Balkan nationalism, Russia's desire to recover territorial losses from the Crimean War and re-establish its presence in the Black Sea, and its support for movements aiming to liberate Balkan nations from Ottoman rule.

What was the Treaty of San Stefano?

Signed on March 3, 1878, it was the initial peace treaty concluding the war. It proposed the establishment of an autonomous, significantly enlarged Principality of Bulgaria, among other provisions. This treaty is celebrated as Liberation Day in Bulgaria.

Why was the Treaty of San Stefano superseded?

Its provisions for a large Bulgarian state alarmed neighboring countries and Western European powers like France and Great Britain, who feared Russia's increased influence in the Balkans. Consequently, it was superseded by the Treaty of Berlin later the same year, which redrew the boundaries and reduced Bulgaria's size.

How did the war change the map of Europe?

The war led to the formal independence of Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro, and the creation of an autonomous Principality of Bulgaria. Russia gained territory in the Caucasus (Kars, Batum) and annexed Budjak. Additionally, Austria-Hungary occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Great Britain took control of Cyprus, significantly altering the geopolitical landscape of Southeast Europe and the Eastern Mediterranean.