The late 13th and early 14th centuries witnessed a tumultuous period in the history of the British Isles, characterized by a protracted series of military campaigns known as the Wars of Scottish Independence. These conflicts pitted the Kingdom of Scotland against the Kingdom of England, profoundly shaping the destinies of both nations and forging a distinctive Scottish national identity. Far from being isolated skirmishes, these wars represented a profound crisis for Scotland, ultimately becoming one of the most defining and transformative eras in its long history.

Remarkably, despite immense pressure and numerous challenges, Scotland succeeded in retaining its status as an independent state by the conclusion of both major phases of these conflicts. Beyond the political outcomes, these wars also held broader significance for the evolution of medieval warfare, notably witnessing the emergence of the longbow as a formidable and strategically crucial weapon on the battlefield.

The First War of Scottish Independence (1296–1328)

The catalyst for the First War of Scottish Independence was the English invasion of Scotland in 1296. This was not merely an opportunistic raid but a determined effort by King Edward I of England, often dubbed "Hammer of the Scots," to assert English suzerainty over Scotland following a disputed succession to the Scottish throne. The conflict saw iconic figures such as William Wallace and Robert the Bruce rise to prominence, leading Scottish resistance against overwhelming English forces. Key battles like Stirling Bridge (1297) and Falkirk (1298) initially highlighted Scottish resilience, while Robert the Bruce's decisive victory at Bannockburn in 1314 significantly bolstered Scotland's claim to independence. After decades of relentless fighting, this first phase of the wars finally concluded in 1328 with the signing of the Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton, an accord that brought official recognition of Scottish sovereignty from the English Crown.

The Second War of Scottish Independence (1332–1357)

Peace, however, proved to be fleeting. Just four years after the Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton, Scotland was plunged into the Second War of Scottish Independence, which commenced in 1332. This conflict was largely instigated by an English-supported invasion led by Edward Balliol, a rival claimant to the Scottish throne, and a faction known as the 'Disinherited.' The 'Disinherited' were Scottish nobles who had lost their lands and titles under King Robert I (the Bruce) for supporting the English during the First War, and they eagerly sought to reclaim their estates with English backing. This second war, characterized by renewed English interference and complex internal Scottish politics, continued for over two decades. It finally drew to a close in 1357 with the signing of the Treaty of Berwick, which, like its predecessor, reaffirmed Scotland's hard-won independence, albeit after further significant human and economic cost.

The Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton (1328)

The Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton stands as a landmark peace agreement, formally concluded in 1328, that finally brought an end to the protracted and bloody First War of Scottish Independence. This crucial treaty represented a significant reversal of English policy and a momentous victory for Scottish aspirations for self-governance. It was signed in Edinburgh by Robert the Bruce, the revered King of Scots, on 17 March 1328, solidifying his reign and the independence he had fought so hard to achieve. Subsequently, the treaty was formally ratified by the Parliament of England during its session in Northampton on 1 May of the same year, indicating a recognition of the new reality by the English political establishment.

Key Provisions of the Treaty

The terms of the Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton were clear and profoundly impactful. In exchange for a substantial payment of £100,000 sterling from Scotland to the English Crown – a sum perhaps intended to compensate for past claims or simply to facilitate a durable peace – the English Crown unequivocally committed to several critical recognitions:

• Full Independence for Scotland: England formally acknowledged the Kingdom of Scotland as a fully independent and sovereign state, relinquishing all claims of suzerainty that had fueled the wars.
• Legitimacy of Robert the Bruce: The treaty recognized Robert the Bruce, and his legitimate heirs and successors, as the rightful and undisputed rulers of Scotland, ending years of English challenges to his kingship.
• Restoration of the Border: The established border between Scotland and England was reaffirmed as that which had been recognized during the peaceful and prosperous reign of King Alexander III (1249–1286), effectively rolling back any territorial gains or claims made by England during the conflict.

Preservation and Gaps in the Historical Record

While the essence of the Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton is well-understood, the physical documentation of the entire agreement presents some fascinating historical puzzles. One of two known copies of the main document, which was originally drafted in French, is carefully preserved within the National Archives of Scotland in Edinburgh, offering a tangible link to this pivotal moment. However, this single document does not constitute the entirety of the peace treaty. Contemporary records indicate that the full agreement was encapsulated within a broader collection of legal instruments, including various indentures, notarial instruments, and letters patent issued by both King Edward III of England and King Robert I of Scotland. Unfortunately, none of these supplementary documents have survived to the present day. Consequently, while the core terms are clear, not all the granular details and specific clauses of the comprehensive peace treaty are fully known to modern historians, leaving certain aspects to interpretation and inference.

Frequently Asked Questions About the Wars of Scottish Independence

What exactly were the Wars of Scottish Independence?

The Wars of Scottish Independence were a series of military conflicts fought between the Kingdom of Scotland and the Kingdom of England during the late 13th and early 14th centuries. These wars determined Scotland's status as an independent nation, resisting English attempts to assert control.

Who were the key figures in these wars?

Prominent figures include William Wallace and Robert the Bruce on the Scottish side, both celebrated as national heroes for their leadership in resisting English rule. English monarchs King Edward I ("Hammer of the Scots") and later King Edward III were also central to the conflict.

Why did the wars start?

The wars began primarily due to English claims of suzerainty over Scotland following the death of King Alexander III without a clear heir. King Edward I of England intervened in the Scottish succession, eventually declaring himself overlord and invading Scotland in 1296, sparking the first major conflict.

How did the First War of Scottish Independence end?

The First War concluded in 1328 with the signing of the Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton. This treaty officially recognized Scotland as an independent kingdom and acknowledged Robert the Bruce as its rightful king.

What was the Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton?

The Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton was a peace treaty signed in 1328 between England and Scotland. It brought an end to the First War of Scottish Independence, with England formally recognizing Scotland's independence, Robert the Bruce's kingship, and a defined border, in exchange for a financial payment.

What were the main outcomes of the Wars of Scottish Independence?

The most significant outcome was Scotland's successful retention of its independence, firmly establishing its identity as a separate nation. The wars also saw the emergence of the longbow as a pivotal weapon and left a lasting impact on Scottish national consciousness and Anglo-Scottish relations.

What was the 'longbow' and why was it important?

The longbow was a powerful medieval projectile weapon, typically made of yew, used by archers. It was important because its rapid rate of fire, long range, and ability to penetrate armor revolutionized battlefield tactics, proving particularly devastating against cavalry and heavily armored infantry, and influenced military strategy for centuries.