Franz von Papen, German general and politician, Chancellor of Germany (b. 1879)

Franz Joseph Hermann Michael Maria von Papen, an aristocratic German conservative politician and diplomat, played a pivotal, albeit controversial, role in the twilight years of the Weimar Republic and the early ascendancy of Adolf Hitler. Born on October 29, 1879, into a prominent and wealthy family of Westphalian Catholic aristocrats, known as the Erbsälzer zu Werl und Neuwerk (a hereditary title signifying a salt producer, an ancient and esteemed privilege), Papen’s life trajectory spanned significant periods of German history until his death on May 2, 1969. His career was marked by a blend of military service, political maneuvering, and diplomatic engagements, culminating in his chancellorship in 1932 and his critical, and ultimately self-destructive, involvement in Hitler's rise to power in 1933.

Early Life, Military Service, and Diplomatic Missions

Papen's roots were deeply embedded in the Prussian nobility and military tradition. He joined the prestigious Prussian Army in 1898, undergoing rigorous training to become a German General Staff officer, a position that denoted high strategic competence and influence within the military hierarchy. His early career included intriguing diplomatic assignments; from 1913 to 1915, he served as a military attaché in both Mexico and the United States. During this period, amidst rising global tensions preceding World War I, Papen was implicated in covert operations, including organizing acts of sabotage within the United States and reportedly financing various factions involved in the tumultuous Mexican Revolution. These activities, aimed at potentially diverting American attention and resources, ultimately led to his expulsion from the United States in 1915.

Upon his return to Germany, Papen continued his military service during World War I, commanding a battalion on the fiercely contested Western Front. He later concluded his wartime duties in the Middle Eastern theatre, achieving the rank of lieutenant colonel. This diverse military experience, combined with his aristocratic background and diplomatic engagements, shaped his conservative worldview and equipped him with a network of influential contacts.

Chancellorship During the Weimar Republic's Crisis (1932)

In 1932, amidst the severe political and economic instability gripping the Weimar Republic, President Paul von Hindenburg appointed Papen as Chancellor of Germany. His chancellorship, lasting from June to December 1932, was characterized by an increasingly authoritarian style of governance, heavily reliant on presidential decrees issued under Article 48 of the Weimar Constitution, bypassing the Reichstag (parliament). This practice significantly undermined democratic processes and weakened parliamentary authority.

During his brief tenure, Papen achieved a notable diplomatic success by negotiating the end of reparations payments imposed on Germany after World War I at the Lausanne Conference in 1932, a move widely popular among the German populace. However, his chancellorship was also controversial, most notably for the "Preußenschlag" (Prussian coup). This coup, launched in July 1932, saw Papen’s government dismiss the legally elected Social Democratic government of the Free State of Prussia, Germany's largest and most liberal state, and install a federal commissioner in its place. This action further eroded the federal structure and democratic principles of the Weimar Republic, effectively neutralizing a key bastion of republicanism.

Despite these actions, Papen struggled to secure a stable base of support in the Reichstag, which remained deeply fragmented. His inability to forge a working parliamentary majority ultimately led to his dismissal by President Hindenburg, who replaced him with General Kurt von Schleicher in December 1932.

The Critical Role in Hitler's Ascent to Power (1933)

Undeterred by his dismissal and determined to regain political influence, Papen embarked on a fateful series of negotiations that would irreversibly alter the course of German history. Convinced that Adolf Hitler, the leader of the burgeoning Nazi Party, could be managed and controlled once brought into a government, Papen meticulously persuaded the aging President Hindenburg to appoint Hitler as Chancellor on January 30, 1933. Papen himself was to serve as Vice-Chancellor in this new cabinet, which was initially presented as a "cabinet of national concentration" ostensibly not dominated by the Nazi Party, with only a few Nazi ministers. The underlying belief among Papen and his conservative allies was that they could co-opt and ultimately rein in Hitler, using his popular support for their own conservative agenda while preventing a full Nazi takeover.

Hindenburg, deeply apprehensive of Hitler but presented with the alternative of a military dictatorship or even a civil war given the political deadlock and widespread unrest, reluctantly consented to Papen's proposal. However, this calculated gamble proved to be a catastrophic misjudgment. Hitler and the Nazis, masters of political opportunism and ruthless in their pursuit of absolute power, swiftly marginalized Papen and his conservative allies. Within months, democratic institutions were dismantled, and the Nazi Party began its consolidation of power.

Papen's political relevance rapidly waned. He formally left the government after the brutal "Night of the Long Knives" in June-July 1934, a bloody purge orchestrated by Hitler to eliminate perceived rivals and consolidate his grip on power. During this purge, many of Papen's conservative confidants and associates were murdered, including Edgar Jung, one of his speechwriters who had criticized the regime. Papen himself narrowly escaped the purge, reportedly due to direct intervention by Hitler, though his office was searched and his staff arrested, serving as a stark warning of his diminished standing and the regime's ruthlessness.

Post-Vice-Chancellorship and Later Years

Following his political marginalization, Papen was relegated to diplomatic service, serving as Germany's ambassador. He was first appointed to Vienna (1934–1938), where he played a role in the political maneuvering that led to the Anschluss, the annexation of Austria into Nazi Germany. Subsequently, he served as ambassador in Ankara, Turkey, from 1939 to 1944, a strategically important post during World War II, where he attempted to keep Turkey neutral and influence regional dynamics.

After the conclusion of the Second World War, Papen found himself facing justice at the Nuremberg trials, where he was indicted as a major war criminal before the International Military Tribunal. Surprisingly, given his prominent role in Hitler's ascent, he was acquitted of all charges in 1946, largely because the court determined that he had not directly participated in the planning or execution of specific war crimes or crimes against humanity after leaving the government. However, his legal troubles were not over. In 1947, a West German denazification court, operating under different legal criteria, found Papen to have been a "Hauptschuldiger" (main culprit) in crimes relating to the Nazi government. This ruling resulted in an eight-year sentence of hard labor, though he was released on appeal in 1949. Franz von Papen published his memoirs in two volumes in 1952 and 1953, offering his perspective on the tumultuous events he witnessed and shaped. He lived out his remaining years, a controversial figure until his death in 1969.

Frequently Asked Questions about Franz von Papen

What was Franz von Papen's primary significance in German history?

Franz von Papen is primarily significant for his role as Chancellor of Germany in 1932 and, more critically, for his instrumental involvement in persuading President Paul von Hindenburg to appoint Adolf Hitler as Chancellor in 1933, believing he could control Hitler. This decision paved the way for the Nazi Party's rise to absolute power.

What does "Erbsälzer zu Werl und Neuwerk" mean?

The title "Erbsälzer zu Werl und Neuwerk" refers to a hereditary salt producer from the German towns of Werl and Neuwerk. It was an ancient aristocratic privilege and a prestigious title indicating a family's historical wealth and status, derived from the lucrative salt mining industry.

How did Papen rule as Chancellor?

As Chancellor in 1932, Papen governed primarily by presidential decree under Article 48 of the Weimar Constitution, often bypassing the Reichstag. This method of governance significantly eroded democratic parliamentary processes and concentrated power in the hands of the executive.

What was the "Preußenschlag" and why was it controversial?

The "Preußenschlag" (Prussian coup) was an action taken by Papen's government in July 1932 to dismiss the legally elected Social Democratic government of the Free State of Prussia, Germany's largest state. It was highly controversial because it undermined federalism and democratic principles, setting a precedent for authoritarian intervention and weakening a key stronghold of republicanism against extremist forces.

What was Papen's miscalculation regarding Adolf Hitler?

Papen believed he could control Adolf Hitler once he was brought into the government, using the Nazi Party's popular support for a conservative agenda while containing its radical elements. He thought Hitler was a demagogue who could be managed by more experienced conservative politicians, a monumental misjudgment that ultimately led to the Nazis' complete takeover.

How was Papen affected by the "Night of the Long Knives"?

During the "Night of the Long Knives" in June-July 1934, Hitler's regime purged perceived rivals within the Nazi Party and conservative circles. While Papen himself survived, several of his close confidants and associates, including his speechwriter Edgar Jung, were murdered. This event solidified Hitler's power and served as a stark warning to Papen and other conservatives of their marginalization.

Was Franz von Papen convicted of war crimes after World War II?

No, Papen was indicted at the Nuremberg trials by the International Military Tribunal but was acquitted of all charges in 1946. However, a West German denazification court subsequently found him to be a "Hauptschuldiger" (main culprit) in crimes related to the Nazi government in 1947, sentencing him to eight years of hard labor, from which he was released on appeal in 1949.