The Constitution of 3 May 1791, officially known as the Governance Act (Ustawa Rządowa), stands as a monumental achievement in the history of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and indeed, in global constitutionalism. Adopted by the renowned Great Sejm, also famously known as the "Four-Year Sejm" (which convened between 1788 and 1792), this foundational document aimed to fundamentally overhaul the political landscape of a unique dual monarchy that comprised the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

For centuries, the Commonwealth had been a "Republic of Nobles," a vast and powerful state known for its parliamentary traditions but increasingly plagued by political paralysis. The Constitution of 3 May was a direct response to these deep-seated systemic flaws, a brave and ambitious attempt to rejuvenate a nation on the brink. This reformist impulse wasn't a sudden spark; it had been building for decades, gradually taking shape since the Convocation Sejm of 1764 and the subsequent election of Stanisław August Poniatowski, a monarch deeply influenced by the Enlightenment ideals and destined to be the Commonwealth's last king.

Transformative Reforms and a Vision for Modern Governance

At its heart, the 1791 Constitution sought to transition the Commonwealth into a more effective constitutional monarchy, moving away from the cumbersome elective monarchy that had often been a source of foreign interference and internal strife. It was a forward-thinking document that introduced several groundbreaking reforms:

• Strengthening Central Authority: It aimed to create a more functional government by reducing the power of individual magnates and factions, thus addressing the chronic instability that had weakened the state.
• Political Equality: A truly radical step for its time, the Constitution introduced political equality between townspeople (burghers) and the nobility. This was a significant challenge to the traditional social hierarchy, recognizing the growing importance of the urban class.
• Protection for Peasants: While not fully abolishing serfdom, the Constitution placed the peasant population under the direct protection of the government, aiming to mitigate the most egregious abuses of their landlords. This was a humanitarian measure that acknowledged the plight of the vast majority of the population and demonstrated a progressive social conscience.
• Abolition of the Liberum Veto: One of the most critical reforms was the banning of pernicious parliamentary institutions, most notably the liberum veto. This notorious mechanism had allowed any single deputy in the Sejm to unilaterally block all legislation, effectively paralyzing the state and making effective governance almost impossible. Its abolition was a bold move towards a more functional and accountable legislature.
• Separation of Powers: The Constitution meticulously combined the principles of a monarchic republic with a clear and modern division of executive, legislative, and judiciary powers, reflecting the Enlightenment's ideal of balanced government.

The vision embedded within this document was not merely to patch up old wounds but to fundamentally reimagine the state, moving it towards a truly modern, functional, and just society.

Hostile Reactions and Tragic Reversal

Such a comprehensive and potentially powerful set of reforms, however, was viewed with extreme apprehension by the Commonwealth's expansionist neighbors, particularly the formidable powers of Imperial Russia and Prussia. A strong, reformed, and independent Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth threatened their geopolitical ambitions and ongoing plans for territorial aggrandizement.

King Frederick William II of Prussia, who had previously offered an alliance, swiftly broke his commitments. He joined forces with Empress Catherine the Great of Imperial Russia and, more tragically, with the Targowica Confederation. This was a group of conservative Polish magnates who, fearing the loss of their traditional privileges under the new Constitution, collaborated with foreign powers to undermine the very reforms intended to save their homeland. This alliance led to the Polish–Russian War of 1792, where the Commonwealth, despite valiant efforts, was ultimately defeated by superior foreign forces and domestic treachery.

Tragically, the enlightened Constitution of 3 May 1791 remained in force for a mere 19 months. In 1793, under immense duress and foreign influence, the Grodno Sejm was convened. This assembly, largely a puppet of Russia, declared the Constitution null and void, though its legal authority to do so was highly questionable and widely considered illegitimate. This reversal paved the way for the devastating Second and Third Partitions of Poland in 1793 and 1795, respectively, which effectively erased the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth from the map of Europe. Poland lost its sovereign existence, a state of affairs that would tragically endure until the close of World War I in 1918.

A Lasting Legacy of Hope and Modernity

Despite its brief lifespan, the 1791 Constitution was far from a failure. Over the 123 years of statelessness that followed, it became a powerful symbol, a beacon that kept alive Polish aspirations for the eventual restoration of their country's sovereignty and independence. It served as a testament to what a free and enlightened Poland could be, inspiring generations of patriots.

As two of its principal authors, Ignacy Potocki and Hugo Kołłątaj, poignantly described it, the 1791 Constitution was "the last will and testament of the expiring Homeland." Yet, it was also a promise of rebirth. In the broader sweep of history, this pioneering document holds immense significance: it is widely regarded as Europe's first, and the world's second, modern written national constitution, coming into force just two years after the United States Constitution of 1789. Its principles, its structure, and its progressive vision cemented its place not just in Polish memory but in the annals of global constitutional development.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

What was the primary goal of the Constitution of 3 May 1791?

Its primary goal was to correct the severe political flaws of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, strengthen its central government, and implement a more effective constitutional monarchy, thereby preventing its collapse and ensuring its sovereignty.

Who was responsible for adopting this Constitution?

The Constitution was adopted by the Great Sejm, also known as the "Four-Year Sejm," a parliament that convened between 1788 and 1792 and was committed to comprehensive reforms for the Commonwealth.

What were some of the most significant reforms introduced by the Constitution?

Key reforms included establishing a more effective constitutional monarchy, granting political equality between townspeople and nobility, placing peasants under government protection to mitigate serfdom abuses, and crucially, banning the paralyzing liberum veto, which had allowed any single deputy to block legislation.

Why did neighboring powers react negatively to the Constitution?

Neighboring powers, particularly Russia and Prussia, viewed a strong, reformed Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as a threat to their geopolitical interests and their ongoing plans for the partition of Polish territories. They preferred a weak, divided Poland.

How long was the Constitution of 3 May 1791 in effect?

Sadly, the Constitution was in force for less than 19 months. It was declared null and void by the Grodno Sejm in 1793, an assembly convened under Russian duress.

What was the long-term legacy of the 1791 Constitution?

Despite its short duration, the Constitution became a powerful symbol of Polish national identity and independence during the 123 years of partitions. It inspired generations with the vision of a sovereign Poland and is celebrated as a foundational document of modern constitutionalism, recognized as Europe's first and the world's second modern written national constitution.

How does it compare to the United States Constitution?

The Constitution of 3 May 1791 is generally considered the world's second modern written national constitution, coming into force just two years after the United States Constitution (1789). Both documents were products of the Enlightenment, establishing principles of popular sovereignty, separation of powers, and individual rights, albeit adapted to their specific national contexts.