Ferdinand VII, known in Spanish as Fernando VII, presided over a tumultuous and transformative period in Spain's history, reigning from 1808 and again from 1813 until his death on September 29, 1833. Born on October 14, 1784, in Madrid at the royal site of El Escorial, his reign spanned the early to mid-19th century, an era marked by foreign invasion, internal political strife, and the irreversible loss of Spain's vast American empire. He was a figure of profound division, hailed by his loyalists as el Deseado (the Desired), while his liberal opponents condemned him as el Rey Felón (the Felon King). This stark dichotomy perfectly encapsulates the deeply polarized Spain he governed.

Early Life and Initial Ascent to the Throne

As the heir apparent to the Spanish throne, Ferdinand spent his youth under the shadow of his father, King Charles IV, and the powerful prime minister Manuel Godoy. This period was characterized by political intrigue and a growing disaffection among the populace with the ruling elite. In 1808, this discontent erupted into the Tumult of Aranjuez, a popular uprising that forced Charles IV to abdicate and led to Ferdinand's initial, albeit brief, ascension to the throne. However, his kingship was short-lived, as Napoleon Bonaparte, ever keen to assert French dominance over Europe, swiftly intervened. In a series of events known as the Bayonne Abdications, Napoleon manipulated both Charles IV and Ferdinand VII into relinquishing their claims to the Spanish crown, paving the way for Napoleon's brother, Joseph Bonaparte, to be installed as King of Spain.

Years of Exile and the Promise of "el Deseado"

During his forced exile in France, Ferdinand VII became a symbol of national resistance against French occupation. The Spanish people, united in their opposition to Napoleon, fought the Peninsular War (part of the larger Napoleonic Wars) in his name, longing for the return of their "Desired" king. They envisioned a monarch who would usher in an era of reform and national renewal. It was during this period, in 1812, that the liberal Cortes of Cádiz, acting in the absence of a legitimate king, drafted and promulgated the highly progressive Constitution of 1812, famously known as "La Pepa." This constitution proposed a limited monarchy, popular sovereignty, and a wide array of civil liberties, reflecting the Enlightenment ideals that were sweeping across Europe.

The Return to Absolutism and Deepening Divisions

Ferdinand VII finally returned to power in December 1813, following Napoleon's defeat and the signing of the Treaty of Valençay. The hope and anticipation surrounding his return quickly turned to bitter disappointment for many. Far from embracing the liberal spirit that had fought for his restoration, Ferdinand immediately set about dismantling the nascent constitutional order. Encouraged by a conservative faction known as the "Persian Manifesto" signatories, he repudiated the Constitution of 1812, abolished the Cortes, and reestablished an absolute monarchy, famously declaring that "the absolute monarchy... is a divine work." This decision marked a profound betrayal for the liberals and ignited a deep, enduring ideological rift within Spanish society, pitting the traditionalist, absolutist "right" against the reformist, liberal "left." His reign became synonymous with counter-revolution and reactionary policies, suppressing any movement towards constitutional governance or individual freedoms.

The Liberal Triennium and Foreign Intervention

The oppressive absolutism of Ferdinand's early second reign did not go unchallenged. In 1820, a military revolt led by Lieutenant Colonel Rafael del Riego, driven by liberal ideals and discontent within the army, forced Ferdinand VII to reluctantly swear allegiance to the very Constitution of 1812 he had previously rejected. This marked the beginning of the Liberal Triennium, a three-year period (1820-1823) during which Spain experienced a return to constitutional rule. However, this liberal interlude was precarious. European powers, fearful of revolutionary ideas spreading across the continent, convened the Congress of Verona in 1822. Concerned by the "threat" of liberalism in Spain, the Congress authorized a French military intervention. In 1823, a formidable French army, known as the "Hundred Thousand Sons of St. Louis," marched into Spain and, with relative ease, crushed the liberal government, restoring Ferdinand VII to absolute power for a second time.

Repression, Colonial Losses, and a Contested Legacy

The final decade of Ferdinand's reign, often called the "Ominous Decade" by liberals, saw an intensified crackdown on dissent. He systematically suppressed the liberal press from 1814 until his death in 1833, jailing numerous editors and writers who dared to challenge his authority. Simultaneously, this period witnessed the near-complete dissolution of the vast Spanish Empire in the Americas. Weakened by the Napoleonic Wars and unable to effectively respond to the burgeoning independence movements, Spain lost nearly all of its American possessions, a monumental blow to its prestige and economic power. Perhaps the most tragic consequence of Ferdinand VII's policies was the direct path he laid for a large-scale civil war upon his death. The succession crisis, stemming from his decision to revoke the Salic Law (which prevented female succession) in favor of his daughter Isabella (via the Pragmatic Sanction of 1830), ignited the First Carlist War. This conflict pitted the supporters of his brother Don Carlos (Carlists) against the forces backing Isabella (Isabelinos/Liberals), plunging Spain into decades of internal conflict. His political legacy remains profoundly contested, with many historians regarding him as an incompetent, despotic, and short-sighted monarch whose actions sowed seeds of division that plagued Spain for generations.

Frequently Asked Questions about Ferdinand VII

What were Ferdinand VII's full name and key dates?

Ferdinand VII, known in Spanish as Fernando VII, was born on October 14, 1784, and died on September 29, 1833. He reigned as King of Spain during the early to mid-19th century.

Why was he known as "el Deseado" and "el Rey Felón"?

He was initially called el Deseado (the Desired) by his supporters who longed for his return during Napoleon's occupation of Spain, seeing him as a symbol of national hope and liberation. However, he was later branded el Rey Felón (the Felon King) by his detractors, particularly liberals, due to his betrayal of constitutional promises, his reestablishment of absolutism, and his repressive policies.

What was the significance of the Constitution of 1812?

The Constitution of 1812, also known as "La Pepa," was a highly progressive liberal document drafted by the Cortes of Cádiz while Ferdinand VII was in exile. It proposed a limited monarchy, popular sovereignty, and enshrined various civil liberties. Its rejection by Ferdinand upon his return marked a critical turning point and sparked a deep ideological conflict in Spain.

How did Spain lose its American possessions during Ferdinand VII's reign?

During Ferdinand VII's reign, Spain lost nearly all of its vast American colonies. This was largely a consequence of the weakening of Spanish authority during the Napoleonic Wars, coupled with the growing strength and determination of independence movements throughout the Americas. Ferdinand's inability to effectively respond to these movements or reconcile with the burgeoning desire for self-governance led to the irreversible dissolution of the empire.

What led to the civil war upon Ferdinand VII's death?

Upon Ferdinand VII's death, Spain was plunged into the First Carlist War. This conflict arose from a succession crisis: Ferdinand, having no male heirs, revoked the Salic Law (which traditionally prevented female succession) via the Pragmatic Sanction of 1830, naming his infant daughter Isabella as his successor. This move was vehemently opposed by his brother, Don Carlos, who claimed the throne based on the old Salic Law, leading to a brutal civil conflict between their respective supporters.