Søren Kierkegaard, Danish philosopher and author (d. 1855)

Søren Aabye Kierkegaard (whose name is often pronounced as SORR-ən KEER-kə-gard in English, or with a more distinct Danish cadence as [ˈsœːɐ̯n̩ ˈɔˀˌpy ˈkʰiɐ̯kəˌkɒˀ]) was a figure of immense intellectual complexity and profound influence during Denmark’s "Golden Age." Born in Copenhagen on May 5, 1813, and passing on November 11, 1855, he was a multifaceted individual who wore many hats: theologian, philosopher, poet, incisive social critic, and prolific religious author. He is, in fact, widely celebrated as the seminal figure, and arguably the very first, existentialist philosopher, whose work laid the groundwork for a movement that would profoundly shape 20th-century thought.

Kierkegaard meticulously crafted critical texts across a wide spectrum of subjects, delving deeply into the nature of organized religion, the state of Christendom, morality, ethics, psychology, and the philosophy of religion. His writing style was as distinctive as his thought, characterized by a profound fondness for metaphor, biting irony, and evocative parables, which he masterfully employed to illuminate and unpack his complex ideas. A central, indeed pivotal, tenet of his philosophical endeavor was grappling with the fundamental question of how one genuinely lives as a "single individual." He vehemently championed concrete human reality and lived experience, prioritizing them over abstract philosophical systems and impersonal objective thinking. In doing so, he powerfully asserted the paramount importance of personal choice, individual responsibility, and unwavering commitment in shaping one's authentic existence. This particular focus stood in stark, often polemical, contrast to the dominant idealist philosophies of his era, most notably the grand, all-encompassing systematic thought of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, which Kierkegaard felt frequently dissolved the individual into an abstract universal or historical process.

He was notably critical of the prevailing literary critics and idealist intellectuals who largely defined the intellectual currents of his time. Kierkegaard provocatively suggested that prominent figures like Emanuel Swedenborg, G.W.F. Hegel, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, August Wilhelm Schlegel, and even his Danish contemporary, the famed storyteller Hans Christian Andersen, were "understood" far too quickly and, crucially, too superficially by academic "scholars." For Kierkegaard, true, meaningful understanding often necessitated a deeper, more personal, and often agonizing engagement that transcended mere intellectual assimilation or swift categorization.

Kierkegaard’s theological explorations delved deeply into Christian ethics, the fundamental role of the Church as an institution, and the crucial, often overlooked, distinction between purely objective, intellectual proofs of Christianity and the individual’s intensely subjective, passionate relationship with the God-Man, Jesus the Christ—a relationship forged primarily through faith. He emphasized what he termed the "infinite qualitative distinction" between humanity and God, underscoring that God's nature utterly transcends human comprehension and categories. Much of his work is imbued with a fervent focus on Christian love (agape) as a transformative force. He was also an outspoken and relentless critic of the prevailing doctrine and practice of Christianity, especially as a state-controlled religion, exemplified by the Church of Denmark during his lifetime. He perceived this institutionalization as having profoundly diluted the authentic, demanding, and deeply personal nature of true Christian faith. Furthermore, his psychological insights were pioneering, offering rich explorations into the myriad emotions and feelings that individuals confront when faced with profound life choices, moral dilemmas, and the inherent anxieties of freedom.

The Power of Pseudonyms and Subjectivity

A distinguishing feature of Kierkegaard’s literary output, particularly his early works, was the extensive and deliberate use of various pseudonyms. These were far more than mere literary devices; they served a profound philosophical purpose: to present distinctive, often conflicting, viewpoints that engaged in complex, dialectical dialogue. Through these different masks, he explored particularly thorny problems from multiple angles, each persona offering a unique perspective and allowing him to avoid a singular, dogmatic authorial voice. This method allowed him to illuminate the multi-faceted nature of truth and experience without claiming objective certainty himself. In stark contrast to these pseudonymous works, he also penned many "Upbuilding Discourses" directly under his own name, explicitly dedicating them to the "single individual" who might seek to uncover the deeper meaning woven through his more complex philosophical and religious texts.

He famously articulated his stance on truth and knowledge, stating, "Science and scholarship want to teach that becoming objective is the way. Christianity teaches that the way is to become subjective, to become a subject." While acknowledging the profound value of scientific observation in understanding the external, empirical world, Kierkegaard emphatically denied that observation alone could ever reveal the profound, inner workings of the "world of the spirit" or the subjective truths that are absolutely essential for authentic human existence and genuine faith.

Key Ideas and Enduring Influence

Among Kierkegaard’s most influential and enduring concepts are the intricate relationship between "subjective and objective truths," the challenging and often unsettling figure of the "knight of faith" (who lives by faith against all rational understanding), the profound dynamic of "recollection and repetition" in understanding time and self, the pervasive and foundational feeling of "angst" (anxiety or dread in the face of absolute freedom and infinite possibility), the aforementioned "infinite qualitative distinction" between God and humanity, faith understood not as mere intellectual belief but as a passionate, even absurd, commitment, and his "three stages on life’s way" (aesthetic, ethical, religious) which represent distinct modes of human existence and spiritual development.

Initially, due to his choice of writing exclusively in Danish, the reception of his work was largely confined to Scandinavia. However, as the 20th century dawned, his profound writings began to be translated into French, German, and other major European languages, sparking a wider, albeit gradual, interest. By the mid-20th century, amidst the turmoil of two World Wars and profound societal shifts that challenged traditional certainties, Kierkegaard’s thought exerted a substantial and truly transformative influence across philosophy, theology, and the broader landscape of Western culture, resonating deeply with a generation grappling with fundamental questions of meaning, alienation, and individual responsibility in a seemingly indifferent world.

Frequently Asked Questions About Søren Kierkegaard

Who was Søren Kierkegaard?

Søren Kierkegaard was a Danish philosopher, theologian, poet, social critic, and religious author from the 19th century, widely considered the first existentialist philosopher. He explored profound questions about individual existence, faith, and morality, challenging the dominant intellectual currents of his time.

What is Kierkegaard best known for?

He is perhaps best known for his emphasis on the "single individual" and personal choice, his critique of organized religion and abstract philosophical systems, and for pioneering many concepts central to existentialism, such as "angst" (dread), subjective truth, and the leap of faith. His works often focus on the tension between finite human existence and the infinite, particularly in the context of Christian faith.

Why did Kierkegaard use pseudonyms in his writings?

Kierkegaard employed pseudonyms not just as literary devices, but as a sophisticated philosophical strategy to present distinct, often clashing, viewpoints. This allowed him to explore complex problems dialectically from multiple angles and to avoid directly endorsing any single position, thereby encouraging readers to engage critically and subjectively with the presented ideas, rather than passively accepting an author's doctrine.

What did he mean by "the single individual"?

For Kierkegaard, "the single individual" represents the concrete, subjective human being who makes choices, faces responsibilities, and strives for an authentic existence, distinct from abstract systems, universal concepts, or the collective. He argued that true understanding and faith must be personally appropriated by the individual through a passionate, subjective commitment, rather than passively received from tradition, objective systems, or the crowd.

How did Kierkegaard's ideas influence later thought?

His ideas were foundational for the development of 20th-century existentialism, profoundly influencing philosophers like Martin Heidegger, Jean-Paul Sartre, and Albert Camus. He also significantly impacted theology, particularly dialectical theology, and inspired numerous literary figures, psychologists, and social thinkers, thereby shaping Western culture's understanding of self, freedom, responsibility, and faith, especially in the wake of societal upheavals.

What was Kierkegaard's main critique of the Church?

Kierkegaard was fiercely critical of the institutionalized, state-controlled Christianity of his time, particularly the Danish State Church. He argued that it had become a mere social convention, losing its authentic, demanding, and passionate nature. He emphasized that true Christianity requires a radical, subjective commitment of faith, a personal appropriation of Christ's teachings, which he felt was diluted by the Church's focus on objective dogma, societal conformity, and an easy, nominal adherence.