Sudan, officially known as the Republic of the Sudan (Arabic: السودان, romanized: as-Sūdān; جمهورية السودان, romanized: Jumhūriyyat as-Sūdān), is a vast and historically rich country situated in Northeast Africa. Often referred to simply as North Sudan, it holds a significant geographical position, bordering the Central African Republic, Chad, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Libya, South Sudan, and boasts a crucial coastline along the Red Sea. As of 2021, Sudan was home to an estimated 44.91 million people and encompassed an expansive land area of 1,886,068 square kilometres (728,215 square miles). This made it Africa's third-largest country by area and also the third-largest within the Arab League. Notably, prior to the secession of South Sudan in 2011, Sudan held the distinction of being the largest country by area in both Africa and the Arab League, titles now held by Algeria. Its vibrant capital is Khartoum, a city that sits at the confluence of the White and Blue Niles, while its most populous urban center is Omdurman, which is an integral part of the greater Khartoum metropolitan area.

A Deep Dive into Sudan's Illustrious History

Sudan's narrative is profoundly shaped by its ancient and complex past, stretching back to the Pharaonic period, making it a cradle of civilization in its own right.

Ancient Roots and Powerful Kingdoms

The land that is now Sudan witnessed the flourishing of the powerful Kingdom of Kerma from approximately 2500–1500 BC, a sophisticated ancient civilization known for its distinct pottery and monumental structures. Following Kerma, the region came under the influence and direct rule of the Egyptian New Kingdom from about 1500 BC to 1070 BC. As Egyptian power waned, the indigenous Kingdom of Kush rose to prominence around 785 BC, developing its own unique culture, writing system, and architecture, including numerous pyramids. Kush was so powerful that it even controlled Egypt itself for nearly a century, establishing the 25th Dynasty of Egypt. After the eventual decline of Kush around 350 AD, the Nubian people, heirs to these ancient traditions, formed three prominent Christian kingdoms: Nobatia, Makuria, and Alodia. Of these, Makuria and Alodia demonstrated remarkable resilience, enduring until roughly 1500 AD, maintaining Christian identity in a region increasingly influenced by Islam.

Medieval Migrations and Regional Powers

Between the 14th and 15th centuries, much of Sudan experienced a significant demographic shift, as it was settled by Arab nomadic groups, contributing to the cultural and linguistic landscape that defines modern Sudan. From the 16th through the 19th centuries, the central and eastern parts of Sudan were dominated by the powerful Funj Sultanate, a Black African kingdom that blended indigenous and Islamic traditions. Simultaneously, the western regions were under the sway of the Darfur Sultanate, while the Ottomans intermittently controlled some of the eastern territories, particularly along the Red Sea coast, for short periods.

The Turco-Egyptian Era and the Shadow of Slavery

The 19th century marked a pivotal moment when the entirety of Sudan was conquered by Egypt under the ambitious Muhammad Ali dynasty, beginning in the 1820s. It was during this Turco-Egyptian rule that Sudan acquired its modern borders, laying the groundwork for political, agricultural, and economic development. However, this period also deeply entrenched the practice of slave trading. During the earlier Mamluk and Ottoman periods, the demand for slaves from Sudanese regions was so high that it often superseded regular tribute payments. A chilling example of this was the Mamluks establishing a state at Dunqulah in 1811, primarily as a base for their slave trading operations. Under Turco-Egyptian rule, slave raids became systematic, often originating in the southern parts of the country, with the captured individuals transported northward to Egypt and further into the vast Ottoman Empire.

Colonialism, Resistance, and the Road to Independence

As the 19th century progressed, political instability in Egypt, notably the Orabi Revolt of 1881, which challenged the Egyptian monarchy, ultimately led to the British occupation of Egypt. Concurrently, a powerful religious-nationalist fervor erupted in Sudan itself, manifesting as the Mahdist Revolt. This monumental uprising, led by the self-proclaimed Mahdi, Muhammad Ahmad, challenged foreign rule and resulted in the establishment of the independent Caliphate of Omdurman. The Mahdist forces, known for their fierce resistance, eventually faced defeat at the hands of a joint Egyptian-British military force, which nominally restored the authority of the Egyptian monarch. However, the true power in both Egypt and Sudan had now shifted to the United Kingdom. In 1899, under significant British pressure, Egypt agreed to a unique arrangement: shared sovereignty over Sudan with the United Kingdom, known as a condominium. In practical terms, this meant Sudan was governed largely as a British possession, with British interests predominating.

The 20th century witnessed the burgeoning of nationalist sentiments in both Egypt and Sudan, united by the common goal of ending British occupation. The Egyptian Revolution of 1952 successfully toppled the monarchy and issued a strong demand for the withdrawal of British forces from both Egypt and Sudan. Muhammad Naguib, one of the revolution's co-leaders and Egypt's first president, who had Sudanese heritage and was raised in Sudan, made securing Sudanese independence a top priority for the new revolutionary government. Bowing to mounting Egyptian and Sudanese pressure, the United Kingdom agreed in the following year to terminate the shared sovereignty over Sudan and grant the nation its independence. On January 1, 1956, Sudan proudly declared itself an independent state, marking a new chapter in its long history.

Post-Independence Challenges and Modern Transformations

Despite achieving independence, Sudan faced profound internal divisions, particularly between the predominantly Islamic north, which served as the seat of government, and the animist and Christian communities in the south. These deep differences in language, religion, and political power tragically erupted into a devastating civil war. This conflict pitted government forces, significantly influenced by the National Islamic Front (NIF), against southern rebels, with the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) emerging as the most influential faction. The protracted conflict eventually concluded with the independence of South Sudan in 2011, fundamentally reshaping the map of Northeast Africa.

From 1989 to 2019, Sudan endured a 30-year-long military dictatorship under Omar al-Bashir. His regime became widely accused of severe human rights abuses, including torture, the persecution of minorities, allegations of sponsoring global terrorism, and ethnic genocide, particularly due to its role in the War in the Darfur region which began in 2003. Overall, the regime's actions are estimated to have resulted in the deaths of between 300,000 and 400,000 people. Widespread protests demanding Bashir's resignation erupted in 2018, culminating in a military coup d'état on April 11, 2019, bringing an end to his long rule.

In a significant shift, Sudan's status as an Islamic state, with Islamic laws applied from 1983, changed in 2020 when the country officially became a secular state, separating religion from the apparatus of government. Economically, Sudan is categorized as a lower-middle-income country. Its economy heavily relies on oil production, despite facing long-term international sanctions and isolation which have impacted its development. Sudan is an active member of numerous international organizations, including the United Nations, the Arab League, the African Union, COMESA (Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa), the Non-Aligned Movement, and the Organisation of Islamic Co-operation.

The Sudan Liberation Movement/Army (SLM/A)

The Sudan Liberation Movement/Army (Arabic: حركة تحرير السودان; abbreviated SLM, SLA, or SLM/A) is a prominent Sudanese rebel group that has been actively involved in the ongoing conflict in the Darfur region of Sudan. It was originally founded as the Darfur Liberation Front by members representing three indigenous ethnic groups of Darfur: the Fur, the Zaghawa, and the Masalit. Among its key leaders were Abdul Wahid al Nur, representing the Fur community, and Minni Minnawi, from the Zaghawa. The SLM/A emerged as a significant player in the Darfur conflict, advocating for the rights and grievances of these marginalized communities against the central government.

Frequently Asked Questions about Sudan

Q: What is the official name of Sudan?

A: The official name is the Republic of the Sudan (جمهورية السودان, Jumhūriyyat as-Sūdān).

Q: Where is Sudan located?

A: Sudan is located in Northeast Africa, bordering the Central African Republic, Chad, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Libya, South Sudan, and the Red Sea.

Q: What is the capital and most populous city of Sudan?

A: The capital is Khartoum, and the most populous city is Omdurman, which is part of the greater Khartoum metropolitan area.

Q: When did South Sudan become independent from Sudan?

A: South Sudan gained its independence from Sudan in 2011.

Q: What was the significance of the Mahdist Revolt in Sudan's history?

A: The Mahdist Revolt, led by Muhammad Ahmad in the late 19th century, was a major religious-nationalist uprising that challenged foreign rule and temporarily established an independent Caliphate of Omdurman, marking a pivotal moment of Sudanese resistance against colonial powers.

Q: What major historical empires or kingdoms existed in the territory of modern Sudan?

A: Sudan was home to ancient civilizations such as the Kingdom of Kerma, the Kingdom of Kush (which once controlled Egypt), and later the Christian Nubian kingdoms of Nobatia, Makuria, and Alodia, as well as the Funj and Darfur Sultanates.

Q: What was the role of the slave trade in Sudan's past?

A: During the Mamluk, Ottoman, and especially the Turco-Egyptian periods (19th century), the slave trade played a significant and deeply entrenched role, with slave raids occurring in the south and captives transported north to Egypt and the Ottoman Empire.

Q: Has Sudan always been a secular state?

A: No, Islam was Sudan's state religion, and Islamic laws were applied from 1983 until 2020, when the country officially transitioned to a secular state.

Q: What is the main driver of Sudan's economy?

A: Sudan's economy primarily relies on oil production, despite facing long-term international sanctions and isolation.

Q: What is the Sudan Liberation Movement/Army (SLM/A)?

A: The SLM/A is a Sudanese rebel group active in Darfur, founded by members of the Fur, Zaghawa, and Masalit ethnic groups to advocate for their rights amidst conflict in the region.