The dawn of the 20th century in Russia was a period of profound social and political unrest, culminating in the tumultuous Russian Revolution of 1905. It was amidst this backdrop of widespread strikes, peasant uprisings, and military mutinies that the imperial government, in a last-ditch effort to preserve its ancient autocratic rule and prevent the empire's disintegration, introduced a landmark constitutional reform. This pivotal document, known as the Russian Constitution of 1906, was not entirely new legislation but rather a significant and major revision of the long-standing 1832 Fundamental Laws of the Russian Empire. These Fundamental Laws had previously served as the bedrock of the country's legal system, published as the Code of Laws of the Russian Empire (Свод законов Российской империи, or in pre-1917 orthography, Сводъ законовъ Россійской имперіи).

Enacted on May 6 [O.S. April 23] 1906, just on the eve of the opening of the first-ever State Duma, this constitution marked a truly momentous turning point. For the first time in its history, Russia transitioned, at least theoretically, from an absolute monarchy—where the Tsar's power was unchecked and considered divinely ordained—to a state where the emperor formally agreed to share his autocratic authority with a nascent parliament. This shift, however limited, represented a monumental concession from a centuries-old tradition of absolute imperial rule.

The Architecture of Power: Russia's First Parliament

The new constitution established a bicameral Russian parliament, a legislative body without whose approval no laws were to be enacted in the vast Russian Empire. This structure was a significant departure from previous governance, where the Tsar's word was law. The parliament was composed of two distinct houses:

• The State Council (Верхняя палата): Functioning as the upper house, its composition was a careful balance between imperial appointment and election. Half of its members were directly appointed by the Tsar, ensuring a segment loyal to the crown. The other half were elected, but not by universal suffrage; instead, they represented various governmental, clerical, and commercial interests, reflecting the regime's desire to include, yet still control, influential segments of society.
• The State Duma (Государственная дума): This was the lower house, intended to represent the broader populace. Its members were chosen by different classes of the Russian people through a notoriously complex scheme of indirect elections. Crucially, this electoral system was meticulously weighted to ensure the ultimate preponderance of the propertied classes, such as landowners and wealthy merchants. This design aimed to dilute the influence of potentially radical workers and peasants, reflecting the government's inherent distrust of widespread democratic participation.

A Delicate Balance: Imperial Prerogatives vs. Legislative Authority

While the State Duma was granted significant powers, including the right of legislation and the ability to question the Tsar's ministers, its authority was far from absolute. The ultimate control over the appointment and dismissal of ministers remained the exclusive prerogative of the monarch. This meant that while the Duma could scrutinize policy, it could not effectively challenge the government's composition. Furthermore, the constitution itself was beyond the Duma's reach; it could not be altered save upon the emperor's explicit initiative, underscoring the Tsar's enduring supremacy.

Adding to the monarch's formidable powers, the Tsar retained an absolute veto over any legislation passed by the parliament, effectively holding the ultimate legislative trump card. He also possessed the unilateral right to dismiss the Duma at any time, for any reason he deemed suitable, allowing him to dissolve a recalcitrant assembly. Moreover, in periods when the Duma was not in session, the emperor held the right to issue decrees. While these decrees were temporary and would lose their validity if not approved by the new parliament within two months of its reconvening, they provided the Tsar with significant power to act independently during legislative recesses.

The Emperor's Reluctance and the Constitution's Troubled Fate

The adoption of this constitutional charter was undoubtedly granted under immense duress, a forced concession rather than a genuine embrace of shared governance. Emperor Nicholas II, steeped in the traditions of autocratic rule and having sworn at his coronation to pass on his absolute power to his son, profoundly abhorred the restrictions this new framework imposed upon his authority. His personal conviction in his divine right to rule clashed directly with the spirit of the constitution.

Consequently, Nicholas II proved an unwilling and often uncooperative constitutional monarch. When the First and Second Dumas, elected with a more liberal and radical bent, proved "unsatisfactory" to him—demanding deeper reforms and greater ministerial accountability—he summarily dismissed them. In a blatant violation of the very constitution he had just granted, he unilaterally altered the election statutes. This change was designed to ensure that future Dumas would have a more conservative composition, dominated by landed gentry and wealthier citizens, thereby creating a legislative body more amenable to imperial wishes.

Although the resulting Third and Fourth Dumas, shaped by these altered electoral rules, proved more lasting and managed to serve their full terms, they were far from quiescent. They continued to engage in frequent quarrels and disagreements with the Tsar and his government, debating the general direction of state policy and the fundamental nature of the Russian state itself. These ongoing tensions between the executive and the legislature highlighted the inherent instability of Russia's constitutional experiment.

Ultimately, the fragile system failed to withstand the pressures of World War I and the deepening internal crises. With the outbreak of the Russian Revolution of 1917, the State Duma, ironically the very body designed to mitigate revolutionary fervor, took a leading role in orchestrating the Tsar's abdication. This momentous event led in turn to the abolition of the centuries-old monarchy and the ascent to power of the Russian Provisional Government under Alexander Kerensky, bringing an end to the imperial era and the short-lived constitutional monarchy.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

What was the primary purpose of the Russian Constitution of 1906?

Its primary purpose was to appease widespread unrest during the 1905 Revolution and transition Russia from an absolute autocracy to a constitutional monarchy, where the emperor would nominally share power with a parliament, thus stabilizing the imperial government.

How did the 1906 Constitution change the Russian government?

It fundamentally altered the government by introducing a bicameral parliament (the State Council and State Duma) whose approval was required for laws. This was a significant shift from the previous system where the Tsar held sole legislative authority.

What were the two houses of the Russian parliament established by the Constitution?

The parliament consisted of the upper house, the State Council, and the lower house, the State Duma.

How much power did Emperor Nicholas II retain under the new Constitution?

Despite sharing power, the Emperor retained significant authority. He appointed half of the State Council, could appoint and dismiss ministers independently, held an absolute veto over legislation, could dissolve the Duma at any time, and could issue decrees when the Duma was not in session.

Was the 1906 Constitution successful in achieving its long-term goals?

Ultimately, no. While it temporarily eased tensions, the Emperor's reluctance to fully embrace constitutionalism and his frequent clashes with the Duma, coupled with the system's inherent limitations, meant it failed to prevent the eventual collapse of the monarchy in the 1917 Revolution.

What role did the Russian Revolution of 1905 play in the creation of this Constitution?

The Revolution of 1905, marked by widespread strikes, protests, and violence, was the direct catalyst. The Constitution was granted by the imperial government under immense pressure, as a desperate measure to quell the revolutionary ferment and prevent further disintegration of the empire.

What were the "Fundamental Laws" that the 1906 Constitution revised?

The 1906 Constitution was a revision of the 1832 Fundamental Laws of the Russian Empire, which had codified the existing legal framework of the absolute monarchy. The 1906 amendments effectively transformed these laws into the first Russian constitution.