Iran (Persian: ایران Irân [ʔiːˈɾɒːn]), historically recognized as Persia, and officially known as the Islamic Republic of Iran, is a pivotal country situated in Western Asia. This ancient land, whose name 'Iran' derives from 'Land of the Aryans', has been a crossroads of civilizations for millennia, profoundly shaping global history, culture, and geopolitics.

Its strategic location is underscored by its extensive and diverse borders:

• To the west: Iraq and Turkey, linking it to the Arab world and Anatolia.
• To the northwest: Azerbaijan and Armenia, countries with shared historical and cultural ties.
• To the north: The vast Caspian Sea, the world's largest inland body of water, and Turkmenistan, connecting Iran to Central Asia.
• To the east: Afghanistan and Pakistan, neighbors with significant shared cultural heritage and regional dynamics.
• To the south: The Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf, including the critical Strait of Hormuz, which is vital for global energy transit.

Spanning approximately 1,648,195 square kilometers (636,372 sq mi), Iran ranks as the fourth-largest nation entirely within Asia and the second-largest in Western Asia, demonstrating its significant landmass and varied topography, which includes vast deserts, mountain ranges, and fertile plains. With a dynamic population exceeding 85 million people, Iran is recognized as the 17th most populous country globally, reflecting its vibrant demographic profile and diverse urban and rural communities. The bustling metropolis of Tehran serves as both the nation's capital and its largest city, functioning as Iran's primary economic, cultural, and political hub, characterized by its modern infrastructure and rich historical sites.

Iran's Enduring Historical Journey

Iran boasts one of the world's most enduring and influential civilizations, with its historical trajectory traceable back to the formation of the Elamite kingdoms in the fourth millennium BC in what is now southwestern Iran. This rich heritage laid the foundation for subsequent powerful empires that would shape global history.

The Rise of Persian Empires: From Achaemenids to Sasanians

The unified Iranian state first emerged under the Iranian Medes in the seventh century BC, establishing a foundational power in the region. However, it was in the sixth century BC that Iran reached its unparalleled territorial zenith with the establishment of the Achaemenid Empire by Cyrus the Great. This monumental empire, renowned for its vast territorial expanse from the Balkans to the Indus Valley, is frequently hailed as one of history's largest empires and widely described as the world's first true superpower. Noteworthy for its sophisticated administration, impressive infrastructure like the Royal Road, and a policy of relative tolerance towards conquered peoples, exemplified by the Cyrus Cylinder, it set a benchmark for future imperial governance.

The Achaemenid Empire's dominance concluded with its conquest by Alexander the Great in the fourth century BC, leading to its fragmentation into various Hellenistic states, most notably the Seleucid Empire. Yet, Iranian sovereignty was powerfully reasserted with the rise of the Parthian Empire in the third century BC, a formidable rival to the Roman Republic and Empire, known for its formidable cavalry. This was succeeded by the Sasanian Empire in the third century AD, which cemented its status as a major world power for over four centuries, engaging in prolonged conflicts with the Byzantine Empire and showcasing a renaissance in Persian art, architecture, and Zoroastrian culture.

Islamization and the Islamic Golden Age

The seventh century AD witnessed the Arab Muslim conquest of the Sasanian Empire, a transformative event that ushered in the Islamization of Iran. Despite this profound religious and political shift, the Persian language and distinct Iranian identity largely persevered, evolving into New Persian. Iran subsequently blossomed into a preeminent center of Islamic culture, science, and learning during the Islamic Golden Age. Iranian scholars, artists, and thinkers made indelible contributions to fields such as philosophy (e.g., Avicenna, Rumi), literature (e.g., Ferdowsi's epic Shahnameh), medicine, astronomy, mathematics, and architecture (e.g., intricate tilework and dome construction), with their innovations disseminating throughout the Muslim world and beyond, significantly influencing global intellectual development.

From Regional Dynasties to Safavid Revival and Modern Challenges

Following the initial Islamic conquest, a series of native Muslim dynasties arose, maintaining degrees of autonomy and contributing to regional cultural flourishing, before the region faced conquests by the Seljuq Turks and the devastating Mongol invasions, which profoundly altered the demographic and political landscape. A significant turning point arrived in the 15th century when the native Safavids successfully re-established a unified Iranian state, solidifying a distinct national identity and, crucially, converting the country to Shia Islam as the official state religion. This decision profoundly shaped Iran's religious, political, and social landscape to this day, distinguishing it from its predominantly Sunni neighbors and creating a unique identity in the Muslim world.

Under the formidable military leadership of Nader Shah in the 18th century, Iran briefly re-emerged as a major world power, extending its influence from India to the Caucasus. However, the 19th century brought a series of costly conflicts with Imperial Russia, notably the Russo-Persian Wars (1804-1813 and 1826-1828), resulting in significant territorial losses in the Caucasus region through treaties like Golestan and Turkmenchay, which profoundly impacted Iran's geopolitical standing and national psyche. The early 20th century was marked by the Persian Constitutional Revolution (1906-1911), a pivotal movement that aimed to establish a constitutional monarchy, limit autocratic power, and create a parliament (Majlis), laying the groundwork for modern political thought in Iran.

A major flashpoint in mid-20th century Iranian history was the nationalization of its vast fossil fuel resources from Western companies by Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh. This bold move led to a controversial Anglo-American coup in 1953, which restored and bolstered the autocratic rule of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. Under the Shah, Western political influence grew, and he initiated far-reaching social and economic reforms in 1963, known as the White Revolution, which included land reform, expanded women's rights, and literacy programs. However, these reforms also centralized power and faced growing dissent due to their top-down nature and suppression of opposition. The culmination of widespread dissatisfaction, fueled by concerns over authoritarianism, economic disparities, and perceived Western influence, manifested in the Iranian Revolution of 1979. This momentous event led to the dramatic overthrow of the Pahlavi monarchy and the establishment of the current Islamic Republic of Iran, founded by the revered spiritual and political leader, Ruhollah Khomeini, who assumed the position of the country's first Supreme Leader.

Governance, Geopolitics, and Society in Modern Iran

Political System and Human Rights

The governance structure of Iran is unique, characterized as an Islamic theocracy that also incorporates elements of a presidential democracy. However, ultimate political and religious authority is concentrated in the hands of an autocratic 'Supreme Leader,' a position that has been held by Ali Khamenei since the passing of Ruhollah Khomeini in 1989. This dual structure often leads to a complex interplay of elected bodies, such as the President and Parliament (Majlis), and unelected institutions, like the Guardian Council and the Assembly of Experts, which hold ultimate power and oversight over all legislation and elections.

The Iranian government has consistently faced widespread international criticism regarding significant constraints and alleged abuses against human rights and civil liberties. These concerns, documented by various international organizations, encompass violent suppressions of mass protests, allegations of unfair electoral processes, and limitations on fundamental freedoms, including freedom of expression, assembly, and the press. Additionally, there are ongoing concerns about limitations on the rights of women and children, often reflecting interpretations of Islamic law.

Regional Influence and Geopolitical Standing

As a pivotal actor in the Middle East, Iran serves as a significant focal point for Shia Islam, actively countering the long-established Arab Sunni hegemony within the region. This ideological and geopolitical dynamic often positions Iran as a key strategic rival, notably with Israel, leading to complex proxy conflicts and alliances across the Levant and Persian Gulf. The state is widely regarded as one of the most influential players in Middle Eastern affairs, with its government directly or indirectly involved in a majority of contemporary regional conflicts, shaping outcomes from Syria and Iraq to Yemen and Lebanon through various state and non-state actors.

Iran holds the status of both a regional and middle power, underpinned by its geopolitically strategic location on the Asian continent, providing crucial transit routes and access to key waterways. It is a founding member of several influential international organizations, including the United Nations (UN), the Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO), the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), and the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), underscoring its significant role in global diplomacy and energy markets.

Economic Power and Cultural Diversity

The nation possesses immense reserves of fossil fuels, boasting the world's second-largest natural gas supply and the fourth-largest proven oil reserves. These vast energy resources are central to its economy and global energy dynamics, making Iran a crucial player in international energy markets. Iran's profound and rich cultural legacy is partly evidenced by its impressive collection of 26 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, which include ancient wonders like Persepolis (the ceremonial capital of the Achaemenid Empire), the architectural marvels of Naqsh-e Jahan Square in Isfahan (a masterpiece of Safavid architecture), and the historical city of Yazd, showcasing millennia of artistic, intellectual, and architectural achievement.

Historically a multinational state, Iran continues to thrive as a pluralistic society, embracing a rich tapestry of ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups. The largest among these diverse communities are Persians, who constitute the majority, followed by significant populations of Azeris, Kurds, Mazandaranis, and Lurs. This inherent diversity contributes to the country's vibrant cultural mosaic, enriching its traditions, languages, and social fabric.

Frequently Asked Questions About Iran

What is the official name of Iran?

The official name of Iran is the Islamic Republic of Iran.

Where is Iran located geographically?

Iran is located in Western Asia, bordered by Iraq, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Armenia, the Caspian Sea, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, the Gulf of Oman, and the Persian Gulf.

What is Iran's historical name?

Iran has historically been known as Persia, a name often used interchangeably, particularly in Western contexts, until the mid-20th century.

What type of government does Iran have?

Iran's government is an Islamic theocracy with elements of a presidential democracy, where the Supreme Leader holds ultimate authority.

Why is Iran considered geopolitically strategic?

Iran's strategic importance stems from its location as a land bridge connecting Central Asia, the Middle East, and South Asia, its access to key waterways like the Persian Gulf and Caspian Sea, and its vast fossil fuel reserves.

Ruhollah Khomeini: Architect of the Islamic Republic

Sayyid Ruhollah Musavi Khomeini, more widely known as Ayatollah Khomeini, was a profoundly influential Iranian political and religious leader who spearheaded the 1979 Iranian Revolution. He served as the first Supreme Leader of Iran from the revolution's triumph in 1979 until his passing in 1989, profoundly shaping the nation's political, religious, and social identity for decades to come.

Early Life and Religious Education

Born on May 17, 1900, in Khomeyn, a town within what is now Iran's Markazi Province, Ruhollah Khomeini's early life was marked by tragedy, with his father's murder in 1903 when Khomeini was merely two years old. This event led to his upbringing by his mother and aunt. From a tender age, he embarked on rigorous studies of the Quran and Arabic, foundational texts in Islamic scholarship. His religious education was deeply supported by his relatives, including his maternal cousin and elder brother, who nurtured his intellectual and spiritual development within the Twelver Shia tradition, preparing him for a life of religious scholarship and leadership.

Religious Stature and Revolutionary Ideology

Khomeini ascended to the esteemed rank of Marja' ('source of emulation') in Twelver Shia Islam, signifying his profound scholarly authority and capacity to issue religious edicts for his followers. He was also recognized as a Mujtahid or Faqih, an expert in Islamic jurisprudence (Sharia law), and authored more than 40 books on a range of religious and political subjects, showcasing his intellectual breadth. His deep opposition to the autocratic rule of the last Shah, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, characterized by what he perceived as Westernization and corruption, led to over 15 years in exile, primarily in Iraq and later in France, during which he continued to propagate his revolutionary ideas and mobilize opposition against the monarchy.

Central to his political thought was the expansion of the theory of Velayat-e Faqih, or the 'Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist (Clerical Authority).' Traditionally, this concept permitted clerical oversight in certain legal and social matters. However, Khomeini controversially broadened it to justify direct theocratic political rule by Islamic jurists, arguing that only a qualified religious scholar could justly govern in the absence of the hidden Imam. This principle, largely unfamiliar to the broader public before the revolution, was nonetheless swiftly incorporated into the new Iranian constitution following a national referendum, becoming the bedrock of the Islamic Republic's governance. While he achieved immense popular support for overthrowing the Shah, Khomeini's views on democracy have been a subject of ongoing debate; The New York Times notably quoted him referring to democracy as 'the equivalent of prostitution,' although the overall compatibility of his ideas with democratic principles and his intentions for the Islamic Republic remain disputed by scholars.

Revolutionary Leadership and Supreme Leadership

As the undisputed architect of the 1979 Iranian Revolution, Khomeini orchestrated the dramatic overthrow of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, effectively ending millennia of Persian monarchy and ushering in a new era of Islamic governance. Upon the establishment of the Islamic Republic, he became its first Supreme Leader, a uniquely powerful position enshrined in the constitution as the highest political and religious authority of the nation, which he held until his death. A significant portion of his leadership, from 1980 to 1988, was dominated by the devastating Iran-Iraq War, an imposed conflict that profoundly impacted Iranian society, claiming hundreds of thousands of lives and shaping its international relations and domestic policies. Following his passing on June 3, 1989, he was succeeded by Ali Khamenei the very next day, ensuring the continuity of the Supreme Leader's role.

Key Policies and Controversies

Khomeini's tenure as Supreme Leader was marked by several controversial policies and statements that had significant international repercussions. He was widely known for his explicit support of the hostage-takers during the Iran hostage crisis (1979-1981), where 52 American diplomats and citizens were held for 444 days, a standoff that severely strained US-Iran relations and shaped a legacy of animosity. Another highly controversial act was his fatwa in 1989 calling for the murder of British-Indian novelist Salman Rushdie, citing blasphemy in his novel *The Satanic Verses*, which sparked international condemnation and ignited debates on freedom of speech and religious tolerance. He also famously labeled the United States as the 'Great Satan' and the Soviet Union as the 'Lesser Satan,' articulating a foreign policy stance of non-alignment and opposition to both superpowers, which deeply influenced Iran's post-revolutionary foreign policy. Domestically, Khomeini faced criticism for severe human rights violations against Iranians, including ordering violent crackdowns on demonstrators and authorizing the executions of thousands of political prisoners, alleged war criminals, and prisoners of the Iran-Iraq War, particularly in the later years of his rule, which drew widespread condemnation from human rights organizations globally.

Legacy and Public Perception

Despite the criticisms, Ruhollah Khomeini is widely lauded by his supporters and many Shia scholars as a 'charismatic leader of immense popularity' and a 'champion of Islamic revival.' He is credited by some for attempting to foster better relations between Sunnis and Shias and is recognized as a major innovator in political theory, particularly concerning the role of religious authority in governance, and in religious-oriented populist political strategy. Holding the esteemed title of Grand Ayatollah, he is officially revered as 'Imam Khomeini' within Iran and among his international adherents, symbolizing his unique spiritual and political stature. Outside of these circles, he is generally referred to as 'Ayatollah Khomeini.' In Iran, his gold-domed tomb located in Tehran's Behesht-e Zahra cemetery has become a significant shrine for his followers, drawing pilgrims and visitors who view it as a sacred site. Legally, he is considered 'inviolable' within Iran, and any perceived insult against him is subject to legal punishment, demonstrating the enduring and protected nature of his legacy and the powerful cult of personality that developed around him after the Iranian Revolution and continues to influence the country's sociopolitical landscape.

Frequently Asked Questions About Ruhollah Khomeini

Who was Ruhollah Khomeini?

Ruhollah Khomeini was an Iranian political and religious leader who founded the Islamic Republic of Iran and served as its first Supreme Leader from 1979 to 1989.

What was Khomeini's role in the Iranian Revolution?

Khomeini was the spiritual and political leader of the 1979 Iranian Revolution, which led to the overthrow of the Pahlavi monarchy and the establishment of the Islamic Republic.

What is Velayat-e Faqih?

Velayat-e Faqih, or 'Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist,' is Khomeini's theory that justifies direct theocratic political rule by an Islamic jurist, a principle incorporated into Iran's constitution.

What were some major controversies associated with Khomeini's leadership?

Key controversies include his support for the Iran hostage crisis, the fatwa against Salman Rushdie, and accusations of human rights violations during his rule.

How is Ruhollah Khomeini's legacy viewed in Iran today?

In Iran, Khomeini is officially revered as 'Imam Khomeini,' legally protected from insult, and his tomb is a significant shrine, reflecting a strong cult of personality and his enduring influence as the architect of the Islamic Republic.