The Peace of Thorn, often referred to as the First Peace of Thorn, was a pivotal peace treaty formally concluding the Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War (1409–1411), frequently known as the Great War. This significant conflict pitted the allied forces of the Kingdom of Poland, under King Władysław Jagiełło, and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, led by Grand Duke Vytautas, against the formidable Monastic State of the Teutonic Knights. Signed on 1 February 1411, the treaty aimed to bring an end to the hostilities that had escalated from long-standing territorial disputes, particularly over the strategically important regions of Samogitia and Dobrzyń Land, and the Teutonic Order's expansionist policies in the Baltic region.

The treaty was concluded in Thorn (modern-day Toruń), a major city located in the southernmost part of the Teutonic Knights' monastic state. Toruń, a prominent member of the Hanseatic League, held significant economic and strategic importance, serving as a crucial administrative, military, and trade hub for the Teutonic Order. Its selection as the signing location underscored its geographical relevance as a border city and a historical point of contention in previous conflicts.

In the annals of historiography, the Peace of Thorn is frequently characterized as a diplomatic setback or even a failure for the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, especially when contrasted with the preceding military triumph. This perspective stems from their perceived inability to fully capitalize on the decisive victory achieved over the Teutonic Knights in the Battle of Grunwald (also known as Tannenberg or Żalgiris) in June 1410. The Battle of Grunwald was one of the largest and most significant medieval battles in Europe, resulting in a catastrophic defeat for the Teutonic Order. Their Grand Master, Ulrich von Jungingen, and many high-ranking commanders were killed, and their field army was virtually annihilated. Despite this overwhelming military success, the terms of the Peace of Thorn did not fully reflect the scale of the Order's military collapse, leading to widespread disappointment among the Polish and Lithuanian nobility and setting the stage for future disputes.

Key Provisions and Their Immediate Limitations

The territorial adjustments stipulated by the Peace of Thorn were remarkably limited compared to the ambitions of Poland-Lithuania and the severity of the Teutonic Knights' military defeat. The main provisions included:

• Return of Dobrzyń Land: The Teutonic Knights were compelled to return Dobrzyń Land to Poland. This territory, situated along the Polish-Teutonic border, had been a frequent flashpoint and was strategically important for controlling access to the Vistula River.
• Temporary Concessions in Samogitia: The most contentious provision concerned Samogitia (Žemaitija), a region central to the conflict due to the Teutonic Order's desire to connect its Prussian and Livonian territories. While Samogitia was returned to Lithuania, this concession was explicitly temporary. The treaty stipulated that Samogitia would remain under Lithuanian control only for the lifetimes of Polish King Władysław Jagiełło and Lithuanian Grand Duke Vytautas. This clause reflected the Teutonic Order's persistent claim to the region and allowed them to hope for its eventual return, effectively sowing the seeds for future conflicts.

Crucially, the treaty did not force the Teutonic Order to surrender other strategic territories that Poland and Lithuania had aimed to recover, such as Chełmno Land (Kulmerland) or Pomerelia (Gdańsk Pomerania), which remained under Teutonic rule despite strong Polish aspirations.

Instability and Subsequent Conflicts

The Peace of Thorn proved to be inherently unstable, largely due to the unresolved territorial claims and the Teutonic Order's reluctance to fully accept its diminished status. The temporary nature of the Samogitian concession, in particular, ensured that tensions would persist. Consequently, the region experienced two more brief, yet significant, military engagements before a lasting resolution could be achieved:

• The Hunger War (1414): This short conflict erupted due to ongoing disputes, particularly over the precise demarcation of the Samogitian border and the Order's continued refusal to fully acknowledge Lithuanian sovereignty there. It gained its name from the scorched-earth tactics employed, which devastated the local populace and led to widespread famine.
• The Gollub War (or Golub War, 1422): This second conflict further highlighted the fragility of the Thorn settlement and the unresolved issues. It ultimately led to the signing of the Treaty of Melno later that year.

The Treaty of Melno (1422) finally brought a definitive resolution to the long-standing territorial disputes, particularly concerning Samogitia, which was permanently ceded to Lithuania. This subsequent treaty established a stable border between Lithuania and the Teutonic State that largely endured for centuries, a feat the Peace of Thorn failed to accomplish.

Financial Burden and the Decline of the Teutonic Knights

Despite the limited territorial gains for Poland-Lithuania, the Peace of Thorn imposed a severe financial burden on the Teutonic Knights in the form of substantial war reparations. The Order was obligated to pay an enormous indemnity, estimated at 100,000 groschen, a sum equivalent to the annual income of some European kingdoms at the time. This colossal debt was intended to cover the costs of the war and the release of captured Teutonic knights.

The immense reparations had profound and lasting consequences for the Monastic State:

• Economic Strain: To raise the necessary funds, the Order resorted to various drastic measures, including heavy taxation of its cities, the sale of substantial properties, and extensive borrowing from wealthy Western European financiers. This severely depleted their treasury and crippled their economic infrastructure, hindering their ability to rebuild after the war.
• Internal Unrest: The increased taxes, economic mismanagement, and perceived weakness led to growing discontent and resentment among the Order's subjects, particularly the urban patriciate and the Prussian estates. This internal friction would later contribute significantly to the formation of the Prussian Confederation in 1440, a league of Prussian cities and nobility that eventually rebelled against the Order's rule.
• Military Weakness: The protracted financial drain hampered the Order's ability to recruit mercenaries, rebuild its military, and fortify its defenses, leaving it vulnerable in subsequent conflicts.

The combined effects of the military humiliation at Grunwald and the debilitating financial reparations imposed by the Peace of Thorn marked a definitive turning point in the history of the Teutonic Order. They never fully recovered their former military, economic, or political might. Their power steadily waned, leading to a long period of decline that ultimately culminated in the secularization of the Prussian branch of the Order in 1525 and its transformation into the Protestant Duchy of Prussia, a Polish fief.

Frequently Asked Questions About the Peace of Thorn (1411)

What was the primary purpose of the Peace of Thorn?

The primary purpose of the Peace of Thorn was to formally end the Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War, also known as the Great War, which had culminated in the decisive Battle of Grunwald (1410).

When and where was the Peace of Thorn signed?

The treaty was signed on 1 February 1411 in Thorn (modern-day Toruń), a significant city within the Monastic State of the Teutonic Knights.

Why is the Peace of Thorn often viewed as a diplomatic failure for Poland-Lithuania?

It is often seen as a failure because Poland-Lithuania, despite achieving a monumental victory at the Battle of Grunwald, secured only limited territorial gains. They failed to fully capitalize on the Teutonic Order's military devastation, particularly regarding the permanent cession of strategic territories like Samogitia, which was only temporarily returned.

What were the main territorial provisions of the Peace of Thorn?

The treaty stipulated the return of Dobrzyń Land to Poland and the temporary return of Samogitia to Lithuania. Samogitia's transfer was conditional, lasting only for the lifetimes of King Władysław Jagiełło and Grand Duke Vytautas, making it a major point of future contention.

Why was the Peace of Thorn not stable, leading to further conflicts?

Its instability stemmed from unresolved territorial disputes, particularly the temporary nature of Samogitia's transfer, and the Teutonic Order's lingering ambitions. This led to subsequent brief conflicts like the Hunger War (1414) and the Gollub War (1422) before a more definitive settlement was reached with the Treaty of Melno.

What were the long-term consequences of the Peace of Thorn for the Teutonic Knights?

The treaty imposed severe war reparations on the Knights, leading to significant financial burden, economic decline, and internal unrest. This, combined with their military defeat at Grunwald, permanently weakened their power and prestige, contributing to their eventual decline and secularization in 1525.