Aloysius Stepinac, Croatian cardinal (b. 1898)

Aloysius Viktor Cardinal Stepinac: A Figure of Enduring Controversy

Aloysius Viktor Cardinal Stepinac (Croatian: Alojzije Viktor Stepinac, 8 May 1898 – 10 February 1960) was a pivotal and highly controversial senior-ranking Yugoslav Croat prelate of the Catholic Church. Serving as Archbishop of Zagreb from 1937 until his death, Stepinac's tenure spanned one of the most tumultuous periods in Croatian and European history, encompassing World War II, the rise and fall of the fascist Ustaše regime, and the establishment of communist Yugoslavia. His actions and roles during these critical years, his subsequent conviction by the communist authorities, and his eventual beatification by Pope John Paul II, continue to spark intense debate and widely divergent interpretations, particularly between Catholic Croats and Orthodox Serbs.

The Archbishop During World War II: The Independent State of Croatia (NDH)

Cardinal Stepinac's archbishopric was profoundly shaped by the Second World War (1941-1945) and the brutal rule of the Ustaše over the Axis puppet state known as the Independent State of Croatia (Croatian: Nezavisna Država Hrvatska or NDH). The Ustaše, an ultranationalist, fascistic, and genocidal organization, established the NDH under the patronage of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. This regime systematically persecuted and murdered hundreds of thousands of Serbs, Jews, Roma, and anti-fascist Croats and Bosniaks. Stepinac found himself in a morally complex and perilous position, navigating the demands of the occupying powers, the Ustaše government, and the spiritual welfare of his flock amidst widespread atrocities and ethnic cleansing.

Post-War Trial, Conviction, and International Reaction

Following the conclusion of World War II and the establishment of the communist Yugoslav government, Stepinac was arrested and subjected to a highly publicized trial in 1946. He was ultimately convicted on charges of treason and collaboration with the Ustaše regime. The indictment specifically accused him of supporting the Ustaše, including through his position as military vicar, and for his alleged complicity in the forced conversions of Orthodox Serbs to Catholicism, a policy enacted by the Ustaše to eliminate the Serbian Orthodox population. The trial drew significant international attention, particularly in the West, where it was widely depicted as a communist "show trial" – a politically motivated proceeding with a predetermined outcome, lacking genuine legal impartiality. The New York Times, for instance, described the proceedings as overtly biased against the Archbishop, noting he had not yet been elevated to Cardinal at that time.

However, this Western perception is not universally accepted. Academic historians, such as Professor John Van Antwerp Fine Jr., have offered a more nuanced perspective, suggesting that the trial was "carried out with proper legal procedure," implying that while politically charged, it might have adhered to contemporary legal standards to some extent. This differing analysis underscores the deep historical divisions surrounding Stepinac's legacy.

The Complex Issue of Forced Conversions

One of the most contentious accusations against Cardinal Stepinac involved his role in the forced conversions of Orthodox Serbs to Catholicism during the Ustaše regime. The Ustaše implemented a genocidal policy against Serbs, which included mass killings, expulsions, and forced conversions. While the Yugoslav authorities found Stepinac guilty of complicity, his defense and the Catholic Church's later stance asserted a different interpretation of his actions. Stepinac consistently maintained that he advised individual priests to admit Orthodox believers into the Catholic Church only when their lives were demonstrably in danger from the Ustaše, and with the explicit understanding that such conversions were pragmatic, temporary measures for survival, holding no spiritual validity. The intention, according to this view, was to allow these individuals to return to their original Orthodox faith once the immediate danger had passed, effectively using conversion as a means of protection against state-sponsored violence. Critics, however, argue that these actions, regardless of intent, still lent a degree of legitimacy to the Ustaše's genocidal policies or failed to adequately resist them.

Sentence, Imprisonment, and House Arrest

Despite the international outcry, Stepinac was sentenced to 16 years in prison. He initially served five years at Lepoglava, a notorious high-security prison in northern Croatia. In 1951, due to deteriorating health and international pressure, he was transferred to house arrest. His movements were strictly confined to his home parish of Krašić, a small village located southwest of Zagreb, where he spent the remainder of his life under constant surveillance by the Yugoslav authorities.

Elevation to Cardinal and Passing Under Confinement

In a powerful gesture of defiance against the communist regime and a recognition of Stepinac's spiritual leadership, Pope Pius XII designated him for elevation to Cardinal in 1952. This move, however, further strained relations between the Vatican and Yugoslavia, ultimately leading to Yugoslavia severing diplomatic ties with the Holy See. Due to his continued house arrest in Krašić, Cardinal Stepinac was unable to participate in the 1958 Papal Conclave that elected Pope John XXIII. He died on 10 February 1960, still under confinement in Krašić, at the age of 61. His death was attributed to polycythemia rubra vera, a rare blood disorder, and other illnesses which many believed were exacerbated or contracted during his arduous imprisonment, cementing his image as a martyr for the faith in the eyes of many Catholics.

Beatification and the Enduring Debate

On 3 October 1998, nearly four decades after his death, Cardinal Stepinac was beatified by Pope John Paul II during a historic visit to Croatia. Before an estimated 500,000 Croatians gathered at the Shrine of Marija Bistrica near Zagreb, Pope John Paul II declared Stepinac a martyr for his faith, specifically recognizing his suffering under the communist regime. This beatification, the penultimate step toward canonization (sainthood), was a moment of immense spiritual and national pride for many Croats, who view Stepinac as a symbol of resistance against totalitarianism and a defender of his people. However, this act reignited fierce controversy, particularly within the Serbian Orthodox Church and among many Serbs who continued to view Stepinac as a collaborator with the Ustaše regime and complicit in its atrocities.

Post-Mortem Annulment and Attempts at Ecumenical Dialogue

In a significant legal development on 22 July 2016, the Zagreb County Court officially annulled Stepinac's 1946 post-war conviction. The court ruled that the conviction was based on "gross violations of current and former fundamental principles of substantive and procedural criminal law," effectively rehabilitating his legal standing in modern Croatia. This annulment further solidified his image as a victim of political persecution for many Croats. Reflecting the ongoing desire for reconciliation and a deeper understanding of Stepinac's legacy, Pope Francis embarked on a unique ecumenical initiative. He invited representatives of the Serbian Orthodox Church to participate in a joint commission with Catholic prelates to thoroughly re-examine the historical record of Cardinal Stepinac, particularly concerning his role during World War II. Despite these earnest efforts, the joint commission, after extensive deliberations in 2017, was only able to agree that "In the case of Cardinal Stepinac, the interpretations that were predominantly given by Catholic Croats and Orthodox Serbs remain divergent." This statement encapsulates the profound and persistent historical and theological divide surrounding Aloysius Viktor Cardinal Stepinac, whose life and legacy continue to be subjects of intense historical scrutiny and deeply held, often conflicting, national and religious narratives.

Frequently Asked Questions about Cardinal Stepinac

Who was Cardinal Aloysius Viktor Stepinac?

Cardinal Stepinac was a senior-ranking Croatian prelate who served as the Archbishop of Zagreb from 1937 until his death in 1960. He is a highly controversial figure due to his actions during World War II and his subsequent trial and conviction by the communist Yugoslav government.

What was his role during World War II?

During World War II, Stepinac was the Archbishop of Zagreb within the Independent State of Croatia (NDH), an Axis puppet state governed by the genocidal Ustaše regime. His actions involved navigating the complex political landscape, providing spiritual leadership, and, controversially, advising on the admission of Orthodox Serbs into the Catholic Church for their protection.

Why was Cardinal Stepinac put on trial after the war?

He was tried and convicted in 1946 by the communist Yugoslav government on charges of treason and collaboration with the Ustaše regime. Specific accusations included supporting the Ustaše government and complicity in the forced conversions of Orthodox Serbs to Catholicism.

What is the controversy surrounding the forced conversions?

The Ustaše regime forced many Orthodox Serbs to convert to Catholicism. Stepinac's supporters argue he permitted this as a temporary measure to save lives from Ustaše persecution, allowing them to return to Orthodoxy later. Critics maintain that this still amounted to complicity or insufficient opposition to the regime's policies.

Was his conviction ever overturned?

Yes, on 22 July 2016, the Zagreb County Court annulled his 1946 conviction, citing "gross violations of current and former fundamental principles of substantive and procedural criminal law."

Why is Cardinal Stepinac considered a controversial figure today?

His legacy remains controversial due to sharply divergent interpretations of his actions during World War II. Many Catholic Croats view him as a national hero, a staunch anti-communist, and a victim of political persecution who saved lives. Conversely, many Orthodox Serbs and critics see him as a collaborator, or at least someone who did not do enough to oppose the Ustaše atrocities against Serbs.

Has he been recognized by the Catholic Church?

Yes, Pope John Paul II beatified him on 3 October 1998, declaring him a martyr. However, efforts towards his canonization (sainthood) have been stalled due to the ongoing historical disagreements and the efforts of Pope Francis to engage in dialogue with the Serbian Orthodox Church.