The Second Italo-Ethiopian War: A Precursor to Global Conflict and a Test of International Will

The Second Italo-Ethiopian War, also widely known as the Second Italo-Abyssinian War, was a brutal and unprovoked war of aggression waged by Fascist Italy against the independent Empire of Ethiopia. This significant conflict, unfolding from October 1935 to February 1937, served as a stark precursor to the Second World War, exposing the aggressive expansionist policies that would define the Axis powers and highlighting the alarming ineffectiveness of the League of Nations to uphold collective security.

In Ethiopia, this period of immense suffering and resistance is often simply remembered as the Italian Invasion (Amharic: ጣልያን ወረራ), while in Italy, it is typically referred to as the Ethiopian War (Italian: Guerra d'Etiopia). Beyond its immediate impact, the war profoundly shaped international diplomacy, demonstrating how unchecked aggression could dismantle the post-World War I peace order and pave the way for wider global conflict.

The Unprovoked Italian Invasion Begins (October 1935)

Driven by Benito Mussolini's fervent ambition to revive the Roman Empire and avenge Italy's humiliating defeat at Adwa in 1896, the invasion commenced on 3 October 1935. A massive force of approximately two hundred thousand soldiers of the Italian Army, commanded by the cautious Marshal Emilio De Bono, launched a full-scale assault from Eritrea, then an Italian colonial possession, without any prior declaration of war. This blatant disregard for international law underscored Italy's contempt for existing treaties and norms.

Simultaneously, a smaller, yet strategically significant, force under General Rodolfo Graziani attacked from Italian Somalia in the south, aiming to divide Ethiopian defenses. Within days, on 6 October, Italian forces seized Adwa. This conquest held immense symbolic weight for the Italian army, as it was the very site of their crushing defeat by the Ethiopian army during the First Italo-Ethiopian War in 1896, a national humiliation that Fascist propaganda sought desperately to erase. Just over a week later, on 15 October, Italian troops captured Aksum, a city rich in ancient history and home to magnificent obelisks. In a clear act of cultural appropriation and Fascist triumphalism, one of these invaluable Aksum Obelisks was torn from its ancient site and transported to Rome, destined to be symbolically erected in front of the Ministry of Colonies, a government body specifically created by the Fascist regime to manage its expanding empire.

Shifting Tides: Command Changes and Ethiopian Resistance

Mussolini, impatient for a swift and decisive victory to fuel his imperial narrative, grew increasingly exasperated by Marshal De Bono's measured and cautious progress. In November 1935, De Bono was replaced by Marshal Pietro Badoglio, a more aggressive commander tasked with accelerating the conquest. Ethiopian forces, though numerically significant and fiercely patriotic, launched a spirited counterattack in December 1935. However, their valiant efforts were severely hampered by a drastic disparity in armaments.

The Ethiopian army, largely equipped with outdated rifles, swords, and spears, stood little chance against the modern arsenal of the Italians, which included tanks, heavy artillery, and a formidable air force. Even basic communication was a critical weakness for the Ethiopians; without radio technology, their command and control relied almost entirely on vulnerable foot messengers. This severe handicap allowed the Italians to effectively encircle and isolate Ethiopian detachments, preventing crucial coordination and leaving them unaware of their own army's movements or the broader strategic picture.

In a fascinating and often overlooked geopolitical maneuver, Nazi Germany, seeking to undermine Italy's influence and outmaneuver its rival in Central Europe, controversially supplied arms and munitions to Ethiopia. Germany's primary motivation was its frustration over Italian objections to its plans to annex Austria. This clandestine support inadvertently prolonged the war and strained Italian resources, eventually forcing Italy into greater economic dependence on Germany and a less interventionist policy regarding Austrian sovereignty. This weakening of Italy's stance cleared the path for Adolf Hitler's eventual Anschluss (annexation) of Austria in 1938, demonstrating the far-reaching and unintended consequences of the Italo-Ethiopian War.

The Decisive Campaign and Ethiopia's Fall

Despite the tenacity of the Ethiopian counteroffensive, which managed to halt the Italian advance for a few weeks, the overwhelming superiority of Italian weaponry ultimately proved insurmountable. Heavy artillery barrages and devastating airstrikes, frequently deploying conventional bombs and, illicitly, chemical weapons, prevented the Ethiopians from capitalizing on any initial successes. The Italians resumed their full-scale offensive in early March 1936.

On 29 March 1936, General Graziani's forces unleashed a brutal aerial bombardment on the city of Harar. Just two days later, the Italians secured a decisive victory in the Battle of Maychew, effectively crushing any remaining organized resistance from the main Ethiopian army. Facing utter defeat and recognizing the futility of further conventional resistance, Emperor Haile Selassie I was compelled to escape into exile on 2 May 1936, making an impassioned, yet ultimately unheeded, appeal to the League of Nations for intervention. Marshal Badoglio's forces marched triumphantly into the Ethiopian capital, Addis Ababa, on 5 May.

Italy formally announced the annexation of Ethiopia's territory on 7 May, declaring the ancient empire a part of its colonial domain. In a grand display of imperial ambition, Italian King Victor Emmanuel III was proclaimed Emperor of Ethiopia. The newly conquered territory of Abyssinia (Ethiopia) was then forcibly united with Italy's existing colonies of Eritrea and Italian Somaliland to form the Italian province of East Africa (Africa Orientale Italiana - AOI). While organized resistance largely ceased, sporadic fighting between Italian and Ethiopian troops, particularly guerrilla warfare waged by Ethiopian patriots, persisted until February 1937, and Italian forces continued to suppress rebel activity across the vast territory until well into 1939, foreshadowing the challenges of maintaining such an expansive, forcibly acquired empire.

War Crimes and Humanitarian Crisis

The Second Italo-Ethiopian War was tragically marked by widespread war crimes and systematic atrocities committed by Italian forces, many of which constituted grave violations of international law. Most notoriously, Italian troops extensively used mustard gas in aerial bombardments, targeting both combatants and, reprehensibly, civilian populations. These actions were in direct breach of the 1925 Geneva Protocol, which Italy had ratified, prohibiting the use of chemical and biological weapons in warfare. The primary objective of these chemical attacks was to terrorize and demoralize the Ethiopian people, breaking their will to support the burgeoning resistance movement.

Further compounding these violations, credible reports documented deliberate Italian attacks against ambulances and hospitals clearly marked with the symbols of the Red Cross, demonstrating a blatant disregard for humanitarian protections during wartime. By most estimates, hundreds of thousands of Ethiopian civilians perished as a direct consequence of the Italian invasion. This horrific toll includes the devastating reprisal known as the Yekatit 12 massacre in Addis Ababa. Following an attempted assassination of General Rodolfo Graziani on 19 February 1937 (Yekatit 12 in the Ethiopian calendar), Italian forces unleashed three days of brutal reprisals on the city's inhabitants. According to Ethiopian sources, as many as 30,000 civilians were indiscriminately killed in this atrocity. Such brutal and massive Italian reprisals against Ethiopians, particularly the systematic targeting of civilian populations and the extensive use of chemical weapons, have led some historians to describe these actions as constituting genocide.

It is also important to acknowledge that some crimes were committed by Ethiopian troops, although on a different scale and context. These included the use of dumdum bullets, which expanded on impact and were prohibited by the Hague Conventions, as well as the killing of civilian workmen, exemplified by the Gondrand massacre. Additionally, reports indicate the mutilation of captured Eritrean Ascari (colonial troops serving Italy) and Italian prisoners, often involving castration, which began in the initial weeks of the conflict. While these actions are undeniably grave, they do not diminish the scale and systematic nature of the Italian state-sanctioned atrocities.

Key Engagements: The Battle of Amba Aradam

Among the many fierce clashes during the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, the Battle of Amba Aradam, also known as the Battle of Enderta, stands out as a significant engagement on the northern front. This protracted and arduous battle, fought from 10 to 19 February 1936, was a crucial part of Marshal Pietro Badoglio's offensive to break Ethiopian resistance in the north. It pitted Italian forces, equipped with modern artillery and air support, against the determined Ethiopian forces led by Ras Mulugeta Yeggazu, the Minister of War.

The battle primarily took place in the challenging mountainous terrain around Amba Aradam, a formidable flat-topped mountain, encompassing much of the Enderta Province. Characterized by relentless Italian attacks and desperate Ethiopian counter-attacks, the battle saw heavy casualties on both sides. Ultimately, the superior firepower and strategic coordination of the Italian forces, coupled with their extensive use of mustard gas, led to a decisive victory, further weakening the Ethiopian ability to mount organized resistance and paving the way for the fall of Addis Ababa.

Frequently Asked Questions about the Second Italo-Ethiopian War

What sparked the Second Italo-Ethiopian War?

The war was primarily sparked by Fascist Italy's aggressive expansionist ambitions under Benito Mussolini, who sought to create a new Roman Empire and avenge Italy's prior defeat at Adwa in 1896. A border incident at Walwal in December 1934 served as a pretext for the full-scale invasion.

How did the international community react?

The international community, largely represented by the League of Nations, condemned Italy's invasion and imposed economic sanctions. However, these sanctions were incomplete and ineffectively enforced, notably failing to include oil, a vital resource for Italy's war machine. This demonstrated the League's severe weakness and inability to prevent aggression, foreshadowing its ultimate failure to avert World War II.

What was the outcome of the war?

Italy won the war, annexing Ethiopia and incorporating it into a new colonial entity called Italian East Africa. Emperor Haile Selassie was forced into exile, and King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy was proclaimed Emperor of Ethiopia. However, Ethiopian resistance continued as a guerrilla struggle for years.

Why is this war considered significant in pre-WWII history?

The war is highly significant because it exposed the ineffectiveness of the League of Nations, emboldened other aggressor states like Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan, and demonstrated that international law could be defied with minimal consequences. It also solidified the alliance between Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, indirectly facilitating Hitler's expansionist plans in Europe, such as the Anschluss.

Were war crimes committed by both sides?

Yes, war crimes were committed by both sides. Italian forces were extensively documented using chemical weapons (mustard gas) against both combatants and civilians, bombing Red Cross facilities, and perpetrating large-scale massacres like Yekatit 12. Ethiopian forces also committed crimes, including the use of prohibited dumdum bullets and the mutilation of prisoners, though on a different scale and without state-sanctioned chemical warfare.