Cotton Mather, American minister and author (b. 1663)

Cotton Mather: A Prolific Puritan, Scholar, and Controversial Figure of Colonial New England

Cotton Mather (February 12, 1663 – February 13, 1728) stands as one of the most significant and complex intellectual figures in English-speaking colonial America. A prominent New England Puritan clergyman and an extraordinarily prolific writer, Mather's life and work encapsulate the aspirations, anxieties, and transformations of his era. His extensive writings, encompassing theology, history, science, and practical ethics, offer an invaluable window into the intellectual landscape of early America.

Early Life, Education, and Ecclesiastical Career

Born into a powerful and influential Puritan dynasty in Boston, Massachusetts Bay Colony, Cotton Mather was a child prodigy. He entered Harvard College at the remarkably young age of 12 and earned his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1678, at 15. Following his theological studies, in 1685, he joined his revered father, Increase Mather—himself a leading Puritan clergyman and president of Harvard—as minister of the Congregationalist Old North Church of Boston. This prominent spiritual and intellectual center, also known as the Second Church, became Mather's lifelong pulpit, where he preached and served his congregation for over four decades until his death.

Political Engagement and the 1689 Revolt

Beyond his ecclesiastical duties, Cotton Mather was a powerful public figure who actively engaged with the political currents of his time. He played a crucial role in the successful 1689 revolt against Sir Edmund Andros, the royally appointed governor who had been imposed on New England by King James II. Andros's administration, known as the Dominion of New England, was deeply unpopular among colonists due to its autocratic style, suppression of town meetings, imposition of taxes without local consent, and challenges to established land titles. Inspired by England's Glorious Revolution of 1688, which saw James II overthrown, Mather and other prominent colonial leaders helped orchestrate a popular uprising that led to Andros's arrest and the dissolution of the Dominion, temporarily restoring greater autonomy to the New England colonies.

The Shadow of the Salem Witch Trials

Perhaps the most controversial and historically damaging aspect of Mather's legacy is his involvement in the Salem witch trials of 1692–1693. While he was not directly involved in the court proceedings, Mather, like many of his contemporaries, believed in the reality of witchcraft and the devil's influence. He advised the court and initially endorsed the use of "spectral evidence"—testimony from victims claiming to have seen the accused's spirit inflicting harm. His 1693 book, Wonders of the Invisible World, defended the trials and attempted to justify their outcomes, although it also reflected his growing caution and urged against over-reliance on spectral evidence. Despite his later nuanced stance and pleas for prudence, his defense of the trials attracted intense criticism during his lifetime and has profoundly and negatively affected his historical reputation, marking him as a symbol of Puritan intolerance for many.

A Historian of Colonial New England: Magnalia Christi Americana

As a historian, Mather's most celebrated work is the monumental Magnalia Christi Americana: or, The Ecclesiastical History of New-England, from its First Planting in the Year 1620, unto the Year of Our Lord 1698 (1702). This seven-book opus is a comprehensive ecclesiastical history of New England, chronicling the region's founding, the lives of its governors and prominent ministers, the history of Harvard College, and accounts of remarkable providences and "wonderful deliverances." It served as both a historical record and a theological argument, asserting New England's divine mission and its unique place in God's plan. While sometimes criticized for its hagiographic style and inclusion of supernatural anecdotes, the Magnalia remains an indispensable primary source for understanding early American history and Puritan thought.

Challenges, Political Clashes, and Academic Ambitions

Cotton Mather remained deeply committed, both personally and intellectually, to the traditional Puritan social and religious orders, even as these began to wane in the face of increasing secularization and commercial growth in New England. He unsuccessfully sought the prestigious presidency of Harvard College, an office his father, Increase Mather, had held. His failure to secure the post is often attributed to his perceived rigidity and perhaps a preference within the institution for more moderate leadership. After 1702, Mather found himself frequently clashing with Joseph Dudley, the royal governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay. Dudley represented a new era of royal authority and more secular governance, directly opposing Mather's vision of a society strictly guided by Puritan principles. Mather's repeated, yet unsuccessful, attempts to politically undermine Dudley highlight his diminishing influence in the changing political landscape.

In response to Harvard's perceived liberalization, Mather championed the newly established Yale College (founded in 1701 as the Collegiate School of Connecticut) as a more conservative intellectual bulwark for Puritanism in New England, seeing it as a truer heir to the original religious mission of the colonies.

A Pioneer in American Science and Public Health

Despite his traditional theological leanings, Cotton Mather was also a promoter of the "new experimental science" in America, a testament to the Puritan belief in understanding God's creation through empirical observation. He conducted original research, notably on plant hybridization, making observations on Indian corn that are considered some of the earliest accounts of plant cross-pollination in North America. Mather corresponded extensively with European intellectuals and regularly dispatched detailed scientific reports to the Royal Society of London, the premier scientific institution of the era. His contributions were recognized when he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1713, a significant honor for a colonial American.

Mather's most famous and controversial foray into science involved his passionate advocacy for smallpox inoculation (variolation) during the devastating Boston epidemic of 1721. He learned about this preventative technique, which involved deliberately infecting a person with a mild form of the disease to induce immunity, from Onesimus, an enslaved African man he held. Onesimus shared knowledge of the practice, which was common in parts of Africa and Asia. Despite the technique's potential to save lives, Mather's promotion of inoculation caused violent controversy in Boston. Many viewed it as dangerous, unnatural, or even an impious interference with divine will. Mather, alongside physician Zabdiel Boylston, courageously championed the practice amidst public outcry, protests, and even a grenade thrown at Mather's home, laying the groundwork for future public health initiatives.

Enduring Influence: Benjamin Franklin's Admiration

In a profound twist of historical irony, Benjamin Franklin—a celebrated scientist, American Founding Father, and a key figure of the Enlightenment—later credited Cotton Mather's book, Bonifacius, or Essays to Do Good (1710), as a major influence on his own life. As a young Bostonian, Franklin had openly opposed the old Puritan order represented by Mather and had even participated in the anti-inoculation campaign through his brother's newspaper. Yet, Mather's Bonifacius, a treatise on practical ethics, civic duty, and active benevolence, resonated deeply with Franklin's own philosophy of public service and self-improvement. This posthumous endorsement from one of America's most iconic figures underscores the complex and often contradictory nature of Cotton Mather's legacy, highlighting his enduring impact despite the controversies of his day.

Frequently Asked Questions About Cotton Mather

Who was Cotton Mather?

Cotton Mather was a prominent New England Puritan clergyman, a prolific writer, and a significant intellectual figure in colonial America from the late 17th to early 18th century.

What was Cotton Mather's role in the Salem Witch Trials?

Mather served as an advisor to the court during the Salem Witch Trials (1692-1693). He initially supported the use of "spectral evidence" but later advocated for caution and stricter evidential standards. His book, Wonders of the Invisible World (1693), defended the trials, which significantly and negatively impacted his historical reputation.

What is Magnalia Christi Americana?

Magnalia Christi Americana (1702) is Cotton Mather's monumental seven-book ecclesiastical history of New England. It chronicles the region's founding, the lives of its key figures, and the history of its institutions, serving as a critical primary source for colonial American history.

How did Cotton Mather contribute to science and public health?

Mather was a proponent of experimental science. He conducted early research on plant hybridization and, most notably, championed smallpox inoculation during the 1721 Boston epidemic. He learned about this life-saving practice from an enslaved African man named Onesimus. For his scientific work, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1713.

What was the significance of Bonifacius, or Essays to Do Good?

Bonifacius, or Essays to Do Good (1710) was a book by Cotton Mather promoting practical ethics, civic virtue, and active benevolence. It famously influenced Benjamin Franklin, who credited it as a major formative work in his own life, despite Franklin's earlier opposition to Mather's Puritan views.