The Second Boer War, known in Afrikaans as Tweede Vryheidsoorlog (meaning "Second Freedom War"), was a significant and often brutal conflict that unfolded in Southern Africa between the British Empire and two independent Boer Republics: the South African Republic (also known as the Transvaal) and the Orange Free State. Lasting from October 11, 1899, to May 31, 1902, this war is also referred to as the Boer War, the Anglo–Boer War, or simply the South African War. At its heart, the conflict was fueled by the British Empire's desire to expand its influence and control over the resource-rich region, particularly after the immense discoveries of diamond and gold deposits within the Boer territories.

The Outbreak and Early Boer Successes

The war erupted in 1899 following the unsuccessful Bloemfontein Conference, a last-ditch effort at a peaceful resolution. Boer irregulars and militia swiftly launched pre-emptive attacks against colonial settlements in nearby British territories. Beginning in October 1899, the Boers demonstrated their military prowess by placing crucial British outposts like Ladysmith, Kimberley, and Mafeking under siege. They also secured a string of notable victories in pitched battles at Colenso, Magersfontein, and Stormberg, surprising the British with their tactical effectiveness and determination. One particularly drawn-out engagement, the Siege of Ladysmith, saw intense fighting between November 2, 1899, and February 28, 1900, in Natal, showcasing the early strength of the Boer offensive.

British Counter-Offensive and Occupation

These initial setbacks for the British prompted a substantial increase in military deployment to Southern Africa. British fortunes took a decisive turn with a change in command: General Redvers Buller was replaced by the formidable leadership duo of Lord Roberts and Lord Kitchener. At the head of a massive 180,000-strong expeditionary force, they successfully relieved the three besieged cities and subsequently invaded the two Boer Republics in early 1900. Recognizing they could not resist such an overwhelming force in conventional warfare, the Boers wisely chose to avoid large-scale pitched battles, allowing the British to occupy both republics and their capitals, Pretoria and Bloemfontein. Boer politicians, including the President of the South African Republic, Paul Kruger, either fled the region or went into hiding. The British Empire officially annexed the two republics in 1900, a move that the Conservative ministry led by Lord Salisbury in Britain attempted to capitalize on by calling an early general election, famously dubbed the "khaki election" by contemporary observers, reflecting the public's focus on military matters.

Guerrilla Warfare and Scorched Earth Policies

Despite the official annexation, many determined Boer fighters, who became known as bittereinders, refused to accept defeat and took to the hills. Under the inspirational leadership of prominent generals such as Louis Botha, Jan Smuts, Christiaan de Wet, and Koos de la Rey, these Boer guerrillas launched a highly effective campaign of hit-and-run attacks and ambushes against the British occupational forces. This guerrilla campaign proved incredibly difficult for the British to suppress, partly due to their unfamiliarity with such tactics and the extensive support the guerrillas received from the civilian population within the Boer Republics. In a desperate attempt to quell the resistance, British high command implemented brutal scorched earth policies as part of a large-scale, multi-pronged counterinsurgency campaign. A complex network of blockhouses, strongpoints, and barbed wire fences was constructed, effectively partitioning the occupied republics. British troops were systematically ordered to destroy farms and slaughter livestock, denying resources to the Boer guerrillas. Tragically, over a hundred thousand Boer civilians, predominantly women and children, were forcibly relocated into crowded concentration camps, where a staggering 26,000 perished, primarily from starvation and disease. In a lesser-known but equally devastating aspect, Black Africans in the same areas were also interned in separate concentration camps to prevent them from supplying the Boers, with an additional 20,000 dying from similar causes.

The End of the War and its Aftermath

By the later stages of the war, engagements had largely devolved into small-scale skirmishes, with few combatants on either side being killed in action; most casualties now resulted from disease. Seeking to bring the protracted conflict to an end, Lord Kitchener began offering generous terms of surrender to the remaining Boer leaders. Eager to secure the release of their compatriots languishing in the concentration camps, the majority of Boer commanders accepted the British terms, formally surrendering with the signing of the Treaty of Vereeniging in May 1902. The former republics were subsequently transformed into the British colonies of the Transvaal and Orange River. In a significant administrative step, these colonies were merged with the Natal and Cape Colonies in 1910 to form the Union of South Africa, a self-governing dominion within the British Empire.

International Context and Lasting Impact

British expeditionary efforts were significantly aided by local colonial forces from the Cape Colony, the Natal Colony, and Rhodesia, as well as thousands of volunteers from the British Isles and across the British Empire, including Australia, Canada, India, and New Zealand. Later in the war, Black African recruits also contributed increasingly to the British war effort. Internationally, public opinion was largely sympathetic to the Boers and increasingly hostile towards the British, viewing their actions with concern. Even within the United Kingdom, significant opposition to the war existed. This widespread international sympathy led thousands of volunteers from neutral countries worldwide, including the German Empire, the United States, Russia, and even parts of the British Empire like Australia and Ireland, to fight alongside the Boers. Many historians consider the Second Boer War a watershed moment, marking the beginning of a critical questioning of the British Empire's perceived impenetrable global dominance. This shift was largely due to the war's surprisingly long duration and the unforeseen, discouraging losses suffered by the British fighting what was initially dismissed as a comparatively "cobbled-together army" of Boers, fundamentally altering perceptions of imperial power.

Frequently Asked Questions About the Second Boer War

What was the Second Boer War?

The Second Boer War was a conflict fought between the British Empire and two independent Boer Republics (the South African Republic and the Orange Free State) over control and influence in Southern Africa.

When and where did it take place?

It occurred from October 11, 1899, to May 31, 1902, primarily in what is now South Africa.

Who were the main combatants?

The main combatants were the British Empire on one side, and the two Boer Republics on the other. British forces were supported by volunteers from across their empire, while the Boers received some international volunteers.

What caused the war?

The primary causes were British imperial expansionism and control over Southern Africa, particularly intensified by the discovery of vast diamond and gold deposits in the Boer Republics, which the British sought to control.

What was the "scorched earth" policy?

This was a brutal British military tactic implemented during the guerrilla phase of the war. It involved systematically destroying Boer farms, crops, and livestock to deny resources and support to the Boer commandos, devastating the civilian population.

What were concentration camps in this war?

The British established concentration camps to intern Boer civilians (mostly women and children) and Black African populations. These camps were characterized by poor conditions, leading to the deaths of tens of thousands due to starvation and disease.

How did the war end?

The war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Vereeniging in May 1902, in which the Boer leaders agreed to surrender and accept British sovereignty in exchange for terms like guaranteed use of their language and the promise of self-government.

What was the immediate outcome for the Boer Republics?

The Boer Republics lost their independence and were transformed into British colonies (the Transvaal and Orange River Colony), which later merged with other British colonies in the region to form the Union of South Africa in 1910.