The Angolan War of Independence, known in Portuguese as Guerra de Independência de Angola, and internally within Angola as the Luta Armada de Libertação Nacional ("Armed Struggle of National Liberation"), was a protracted and complex conflict that spanned from 1961 to 1974. This pivotal struggle marked Angola's fight to break free from centuries of Portuguese colonial rule, emerging from deeply rooted grievances against oppressive colonial policies.

The conflict did not erupt spontaneously but was the culmination of mounting tensions. It notably began with a series of popular uprisings against the coercive system of forced cotton cultivation imposed on Angolan peasants. This brutal system, which compelled farmers to grow cotton for export regardless of their own subsistence needs, led to widespread hardship and discontent. A significant flashpoint was the Baixa de Cassanje revolt in January 1961, where forced labor and harsh conditions ignited a fierce, though brutally suppressed, peasant uprising, often cited as a key catalyst for the broader armed struggle.

The Multi-Factional Struggle for Angola

Far from being a monolithic conflict, the Angolan War of Independence evolved into a multifaceted struggle for control over Portugal's vast overseas province. Multiple armed groups vied for dominance, each representing different ideological stances, ethnic bases, and international alliances. The principal combatants included:

• The Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA): Founded in 1956, the MPLA adopted a Marxist-Leninist ideology and drew significant support from the Kimbundu ethnic group and the urban intelligentsia. It received crucial backing from the Soviet Union and Cuba.
• The National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA): Emerging from earlier nationalist movements, the FNLA was more conservative and largely based among the Bakongo people, drawing support from neighboring Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of Congo). It received assistance from the United States and China at various times.
• The National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA): Established in 1966 by Jonas Savimbi, UNITA initially held Maoist leanings but later adopted a staunch anti-communist stance. Its primary support base was among the Ovimbundu people in the central highlands, and it eventually received support from China, South Africa, and the United States.
• The Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC): This was a separatist movement advocating for the independence of the oil-rich Cabinda exclave, distinct from the broader Angolan nationalist aspirations.

These movements, while united by the goal of independence from Portugal, harbored deep-seated rivalries and ideological differences that would later plunge Angola into a devastating civil war.

A Theater of the Portuguese Overseas War

The Angolan conflict was not an isolated event but rather a significant branch or theater of the wider Portuguese Overseas War (also known as the Colonial War). This broader conflict simultaneously encompassed liberation struggles in other Portuguese African territories, notably the independence wars in Guinea-Bissau and Mozambique. Portugal, under the authoritarian Estado Novo regime of António de Oliveira Salazar and later Marcelo Caetano, was determined to maintain its vast colonial empire, viewing the overseas provinces as integral parts of the nation. This commitment led to a protracted and costly counter-insurgency campaign across multiple fronts.

The war in Angola primarily manifested as a brutal guerrilla conflict. The Portuguese armed forces and security agencies waged an intense counter-insurgency campaign against the dispersed and elusive armed groups of the nationalist movements. Fighting predominantly occurred across the vast, sparsely populated rural areas of Angola, where the guerrilla fighters utilized their knowledge of the terrain to their advantage. The protracted nature of the conflict, characterized by hit-and-run tactics, ambushes, and extensive use of landmines, resulted in immense suffering and loss of life. Tragically, all sides involved in the conflict were responsible for committing numerous atrocities, including massacres, torture, and forced displacement, leaving a lasting scar on the Angolan populace.

Despite the military challenges, the Portuguese army achieved what was largely considered an overall military victory on the ground. By 1974, Portuguese forces had contained or significantly weakened the major nationalist movements, preventing them from achieving decisive military gains. However, this military success did not translate into political stability or an end to the colonial project. The financial and human costs of maintaining three simultaneous colonial wars had become unsustainable for Portugal, exacerbating internal dissent within the metropolitan country.

The Carnation Revolution and Angola's Swift Independence

The true end to the Angolan War of Independence came not from a military defeat of Portugal in Africa, but from a dramatic political upheaval in Lisbon. On April 25, 1974, a virtually bloodless leftist military coup, known as the Carnation Revolution (Revolução dos Cravos), overthrew Portugal's long-standing Estado Novo dictatorship. The new military junta, the Movimento das Forças Armadas (MFA), immediately declared its intention to end all military action in the African colonies and grant them independence without delay. This pivotal event fundamentally altered the course of decolonization, signaling an abrupt end to Portugal's colonial empire.

The Failed Promise of Peace: The Alvor Agreement

Following the Portuguese withdrawal, a new and tragic chapter began in Angola. The inherent rivalries among the nationalist movements, previously overshadowed by the common enemy, erupted into a full-scale armed conflict. This internal struggle, which would escalate into the Angolan Civil War, formally commenced with the signing of the Alvor Agreement on January 15, 1975, in Alvor, Portugal.

What was the Alvor Agreement?

The Alvor Agreement was a treaty signed by the Portuguese government, the MPLA, FNLA, and UNITA. Its primary goal was to establish a transitional government in Angola, prepare for democratic elections, and ultimately lead to Angola's full independence on November 11, 1975.

Why did the Alvor Agreement fail?

Despite its intentions, the Alvor Agreement quickly collapsed due to deep mistrust, ideological divisions, and irreconcilable differences among the three main nationalist movements, each vying for ultimate control of the soon-to-be independent nation. Foreign powers also began to support their respective proxies, further fueling the conflict.

Informally, the civil war resumed with shocking rapidity. By May 1975, just months after the Alvor Agreement was signed, intense street fighting broke out in the capital, Luanda, and across the surrounding countryside. This immediate resumption of hostilities among the former allies marked the beginning of one of Africa's longest and most devastating post-colonial conflicts, drawing in regional and international actors and leaving a legacy of profound instability.