Understanding the United States Congress: The Core of U.S. Federal Legislation

The United States Congress serves as the legislative branch of the federal government, holding the critical responsibility for creating laws that govern the nation. Situated in the iconic United States Capitol building in Washington, D.C., this institution embodies the principles of representative democracy and the separation of powers.

Structure and Membership of Congress

Congress operates under a bicameral structure, meaning it is composed of two distinct chambers. This design, a result of the Great Compromise during the Constitutional Convention, ensures a balance between population-based representation and equal state representation:

• The House of Representatives: Often referred to as the "lower body," the House is designed to represent the population more directly.
• The Senate: Known as the "upper body," the Senate provides equal representation for each state, regardless of its population size.

In total, Congress comprises 535 voting members. This includes 100 senators, with two allocated to each of the 50 states, and 435 representatives, whose numbers per state are determined by population. While the Vice President of the United States presides over the Senate, their voting power is limited to breaking a tie when senators are evenly divided on a measure, a rare but significant event that underscores the balance of power within the chamber.

The House of Representatives also includes six non-voting members, representing territories and the District of Columbia. These delegates and resident commissioners can participate in debates and committee work but cannot cast votes on the final passage of legislation on the House floor. These include representatives from Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the U.S. Virgin Islands, the Northern Mariana Islands, and the District of Columbia.

Electoral Processes and Terms of Service

Both senators and representatives are chosen through direct popular election, a democratic principle solidified over time. While the 17th Amendment (1913) mandated the direct election of senators, replacing the previous system where state legislatures chose them, vacancies in the Senate can still be temporarily filled by a governor's appointment until a special election is held.

The sitting of a Congress is designated for a two-year term, typically commencing every other January. Nationwide elections for federal offices, including all House seats and a portion of Senate seats, are held every even-numbered year on Election Day, which falls on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November.

• House of Representatives: Members of the House serve for the full two-year term of a Congress. The process for their election is governed by specific regulations, notably the Reapportionment Act of 1929. This act mandates that representatives be elected in single-member constituencies, or districts, using the "first-past-the-post" system (where the candidate with the most votes wins, even if not a majority). Furthermore, it stipulates that Congressional districts must be apportioned among states based on population every ten years, following the results of the decennial United States Census, with the guarantee that every state, regardless of how small its population, will have at least one Congressional representative.
• Senate: Each senator is elected "at-large," meaning they represent their entire state, for a six-year term. To ensure continuity and stability within the upper chamber, Senate terms are staggered. This means that approximately one-third of the Senate seats are up for election every two years, preventing a complete turnover of the chamber in any single election cycle.

Qualifications for Congressional Service

Article One of the United States Constitution lays out the specific eligibility requirements for individuals wishing to serve in Congress:

• For the House of Representatives: A candidate must be at least 25 years old, have been a citizen of the United States for at least seven years, and be an inhabitant of the state they represent at the time of their election.
• For the Senate: A candidate must be at least 30 years old, have been a citizen of the United States for at least nine years, and also be an inhabitant of the state they represent.

Notably, members in both chambers are permitted to stand for re-election an unlimited number of times, allowing for the accumulation of experience and institutional knowledge, though this also raises debates about term limits and career politicians.

Historical Context and Political Landscape

The United States Congress was formally established by the Constitution in 1789, marking a significant evolution from its predecessor, the Congress of the Confederation. The earlier body, operating under the Articles of Confederation, proved ineffective due to its limited powers and inability to enforce laws, paving the way for the creation of a stronger, more unified legislative branch.

While not a legal requirement, the practical reality since the 19th century is that members of Congress are overwhelmingly affiliated with one of the two dominant political parties: the Democratic Party or the Republican Party. Affiliation with a third party or as an independent (with no party affiliation) is rare. However, even independents can choose to "caucus" or align with members of a major political party for organizational and strategic purposes within Congress. Although uncommon, members retain the freedom to switch party affiliations at any time during their tenure.

The Impact of the Immigration Act of 1917: A Shift Towards Restriction

The Immigration Act of 1917, also widely known as the Literacy Act and occasionally as the Asiatic Barred Zone Act, represented a watershed moment in U.S. immigration policy. This comprehensive federal statute was designed to significantly restrict immigration into the United States, reflecting a growing sentiment of nativism and isolationism in the early 20th century.

Key Provisions and Restrictions

The act implemented several stringent measures to curb immigration, fundamentally altering the landscape of who could enter the country:

• Literacy Tests: A cornerstone of the act, it mandated that all immigrants over the age of 16 be able to read 30-40 words in some language, effectively disenfranchising many potential immigrants, particularly those from Southern and Eastern Europe, who might not have had access to formal education.
• New Categories of Inadmissible Persons: The act expanded the list of individuals deemed ineligible for entry. This included a broad range of categories, such as "idiots, imbeciles, feeble-minded persons, epileptics, insane persons," as well as "paupers," "professional beggars," "anarchists," "polygamists," and "aliens who are morally depraved or prostitutes."
• Asiatic Barred Zone: Perhaps the most discriminatory provision, it effectively prohibited immigration from a vast region of Asia. This "barred zone" stretched from the Middle East to Southeast Asia, specifically targeting populations from countries such as China (though already excluded by previous acts), India, Afghanistan, Persia (Iran), Siberia, parts of the Arabian Peninsula, and the Pacific Islands. This zone was defined by longitude and latitude, marking a clear geographical exclusion based on national origin.

Historical Significance and Nativism

The Immigration Act of 1917 was the most sweeping and restrictive immigration legislation passed by the United States up to that point. It followed in the footsteps of earlier discriminatory acts, most notably the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, and solidified a significant turn towards nativism. Nativism, in this context, refers to a policy or belief that favors native-born inhabitants over immigrants, often fueled by fears that immigrants will dilute existing cultural values, depress wages, or pose a threat to national security. The act reflected widespread anti-immigrant sentiment, particularly against non-white immigrants and those from specific European regions.

Legislative Evolution and Subsequent Amendments

While highly impactful, the 1917 act did not remain the final word on U.S. immigration policy. It governed immigration until it was significantly amended by the Immigration Act of 1924. The 1924 act further tightened restrictions by introducing national origin quotas, drastically limiting immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe and virtually halting Asian immigration. Both the 1917 and 1924 acts were eventually revised and consolidated under the more comprehensive Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 (also known as the McCarran-Walter Act), which codified existing immigration and naturalization laws, though it largely maintained the quota system until subsequent reforms.

Frequently Asked Questions About the U.S. Congress and Immigration Policy

What is the primary function of the U.S. Congress?

The primary function of the U.S. Congress is to serve as the legislative branch of the federal government, meaning its main responsibility is to create, debate, and pass laws that govern the nation. It also has powers related to declaring war, confirming presidential appointments, and overseeing the executive branch.

How many voting members are there in the U.S. Congress?

The U.S. Congress has 535 voting members: 100 senators (two from each of the 50 states) and 435 representatives (apportioned among the states by population).

What are the differences in terms for U.S. Senators and Representatives?

Members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms, with all seats up for election every even-numbered year. U.S. Senators serve six-year terms, but these terms are staggered, so approximately one-third of the Senate is up for election every two years, ensuring continuity within the chamber.

What was the main purpose of the Immigration Act of 1917?

The main purpose of the Immigration Act of 1917 was to significantly restrict immigration into the United States. It did this primarily by imposing literacy tests on immigrants, creating new categories of "inadmissible persons," and establishing an "Asiatic Barred Zone" that prohibited immigration from much of Asia.

How did the Immigration Act of 1917 relate to "nativism"?

The Immigration Act of 1917 was a direct manifestation of nativism, which is the political policy of promoting the interests of native inhabitants over those of immigrants. The act's provisions, especially the literacy tests and the Asiatic Barred Zone, were designed to reduce immigration from specific regions and demographic groups perceived as undesirable, reflecting a preference for existing American-born populations and an anti-immigrant sentiment.