Manuel Antonio Noriega Moreno (Spanish pronunciation: [maˈnwel noˈɾjeɣa]; February 11, 1934 – May 29, 2017) was a prominent Panamanian military officer, politician, and ultimately, a dictator who served as the de facto leader of Panama from 1983 until his removal from power by the United States invasion in December 1989. His rule was characterized by an authoritarian grip on the nation, marked by the suppression of dissent and an accumulation of vast personal wealth, largely derived from illicit drug trafficking operations. Notably, Noriega maintained complex and long-standing clandestine relationships with various United States intelligence agencies, serving as a crucial asset for decades before becoming a significant liability, leading to the decisive military action known as Operation Just Cause.

Early Life and Strategic Ascent to Power

Born into humble beginnings in Panama City, Noriega hailed from a poor mestizo family. His path to military and political prominence began with rigorous education at the Chorrillos Military School in Lima, Peru, followed by training at the controversial School of the Americas (SOA) in Fort Benning, Georgia, United States. The SOA, often criticized for training military leaders who later became involved in human rights abuses in Latin America, provided Noriega with crucial military instruction and strategic networking opportunities.

Noriega swiftly ascended through the ranks of the Panamanian army, largely due to his strategic alliance and close working relationship with General Omar Torrijos Herrera, Panama's then-powerful de facto leader. This alliance proved pivotal when Torrijos successfully orchestrated a coup in 1968, overthrowing the democratically elected President Arnulfo Arias Madrid. Following the coup, Noriega was appointed as the chief of military intelligence, a position that allowed him to cultivate a vast network of informants, solidify his influence within the military, and gather critical information, both domestic and international.

After the unexpected death of General Torrijos in a mysterious plane crash in 1981—an event that remains the subject of some speculation—Noriega meticulously consolidated his power. Through a series of calculated maneuvers within the Panamanian military and political landscape, he effectively sidelined rivals and emerged as Panama's undeniable de facto ruler by 1983.

A Decades-Long Relationship with U.S. Intelligence

Noriega's complex and often contradictory relationship with United States intelligence agencies commenced as early as the 1950s. He became one of the Central Intelligence Agency's (CIA) most valuable and highly compensated intelligence sources in the region. His utility to the U.S. stemmed from his ability to provide intelligence on various geopolitical concerns, including Cuban activities, Nicaraguan Sandinista movements, and emerging drug cartels. Furthermore, Noriega played a crucial role as a clandestine conduit, facilitating the transfer of illicit weapons, military equipment, and cash, much of which was destined for U.S.-backed anti-communist forces, such as the Contras in Nicaragua, throughout Latin America during the Cold War era. This dual role as both an intelligence asset and a participant in illicit activities would later become a significant point of contention.

Deterioration of U.S. Relations and Legal Battles

The intricate relationship between Manuel Noriega and the United States began to unravel significantly in the late 1980s. This decline was prompted by several factors: the increasing public revelation of his ties to intelligence agencies of rival nations (such as Cuba), and the undeniable escalation of investigations into his extensive involvement in international drug trafficking, particularly with the Medellín Cartel. What was once seen as a strategic asset by the U.S. increasingly became an embarrassing liability as evidence of his criminal enterprises mounted.

In February 1988, the U.S. federal justice system took decisive action. Grand juries in both Miami and Tampa, Florida, issued indictments against Noriega on a range of serious federal charges, including:

• Racketeering (operating a criminal enterprise)
• Drug smuggling and conspiracy (specifically cocaine trafficking)
• Money laundering (cleaning illicit drug profits)

These indictments marked a turning point, signaling the U.S. government's determination to remove Noriega from power. Diplomatic negotiations aimed at securing his voluntary resignation proved futile. The final catalyst for intervention came when Noriega controversially annulled the results of the May 1989 Panamanian general election, which external observers widely believed had been won by the opposition candidate, Guillermo Endara. This blatant disregard for democratic processes, combined with ongoing concerns about drug trafficking and his increasingly hostile rhetoric towards the U.S., led President George H.W. Bush to authorize military intervention.

Operation Just Cause and Subsequent Imprisonment

On December 20, 1989, the United States launched Operation Just Cause, a large-scale military invasion of Panama with the primary objectives of safeguarding American lives, defending democracy, combating drug trafficking, and bringing Noriega to justice. After intense fighting and a lengthy standoff at the Vatican embassy where he sought asylum, Noriega surrendered on January 3, 1990. He was immediately captured and flown to the United States.

In Miami, Noriega faced trial on the charges outlined in the 1988 indictment. In April 1992, he was convicted on most of the charges, including racketeering, drug conspiracy, and money laundering, and subsequently sentenced to 40 years in federal prison. Due to good behavior and various legal appeals, his sentence was ultimately reduced, and he served approximately 17 years in the U.S. prison system.

His legal odyssey did not end there. In 2010, Noriega was extradited to France, where he faced separate charges of money laundering related to drug proceeds laundered through French banks. He was convicted and sentenced to seven years of imprisonment. Less than a year later, in 2011, France extradited him to Panama. Upon his return to his home country, Noriega was incarcerated to serve sentences for crimes committed during his rule, including murder and human rights abuses, for which he had been tried and convicted in absentia in the 1990s. He spent his final years imprisoned in Panama.

Manuel Noriega's life concluded on May 29, 2017, at the age of 83. He had been diagnosed with a benign brain tumor in March 2017 and suffered fatal complications during surgery two months later.

The Nature of Noriega's Authoritarian Rule and Enduring Legacy

Manuel Noriega's tenure as Panama's de facto ruler from 1983 to 1989 is unequivocally characterized as a repressive military dictatorship. His regime systematically dismantled democratic institutions and suppressed civil liberties, maintaining power through intimidation and force. Key characteristics of his rule included:

• Media Repression: Independent newspapers, radio stations, and television channels were censored, shut down, or taken over by the regime, stifling dissent and controlling the narrative presented to the public. Journalists and critics often faced harassment, arrest, or exile.
• Military Expansion and Control: Noriega significantly expanded the Panamanian Defense Forces (PDF), transforming it into a personal instrument of power rather than a national army. The PDF was used to enforce his will and quell opposition.
• Persecution of Political Opponents: Dissenters, opposition leaders, and human rights activists faced severe persecution, including arbitrary arrests, torture, and extrajudicial killings. The regime created an atmosphere of fear and surveillance.
• Manipulation of Elections: While elections were nominally held, their outcomes were effectively predetermined or annulled if they did not favor the regime, demonstrating a complete disregard for democratic processes.

Noriega did not espouse a clear social or economic ideology; instead, his regime relied heavily on a form of military nationalism to consolidate support and justify its actions. This involved appealing to Panamanian sovereignty and anti-American sentiment, particularly as his relationship with the U.S. soured.

His historical portrayal often highlights his profoundly complicated and paradoxical relationship with the United States. Noriega was simultaneously viewed as a valuable intelligence asset—an "ally" in the Cold War fight against communism—and later as a dangerous criminal and "nemesis" whose illicit activities undermined U.S. foreign policy objectives and challenged regional stability. This dual nature underscores the pragmatism and moral compromises that often characterized U.S. foreign policy during that era.

Manuel Noriega remains one of the most recognizable and controversial dictators of the late 20th century. His rule is frequently invoked in discussions about authoritarianism, U.S. interventionism, and the complexities of drug trafficking and national sovereignty. He is often compared to other notorious strongmen of his time, such as Libya's Muammar Gaddafi and Chile's Augusto Pinochet, reflecting a shared reliance on military control, suppression of human rights, and a highly personalized form of governance.

Frequently Asked Questions About Manuel Noriega

Who was Manuel Noriega?

Manuel Antonio Noriega Moreno was a Panamanian military officer who rose to become the de facto dictator of Panama from 1983 to 1989. His rule was characterized by authoritarianism, human rights abuses, and significant involvement in international drug trafficking.

Why did the U.S. invade Panama in 1989?

The U.S. invasion of Panama, known as Operation Just Cause, was launched on December 20, 1989, due to several factors: Noriega's indictment on drug trafficking and racketeering charges, his annulment of the 1989 Panamanian general election results, and concerns for the safety of American citizens in Panama. The primary goal was to remove Noriega from power and restore democracy.

What was Noriega's relationship with the CIA?

Noriega had a long-standing and complex relationship with the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) dating back to the 1950s. He served as a paid informant and asset, providing intelligence on regional matters and acting as a conduit for U.S. operations in Latin America, including supporting anti-communist forces. However, this relationship deteriorated as his involvement in drug trafficking became undeniable and publicly exposed.

What crimes was Manuel Noriega convicted of?

Noriega faced convictions in multiple countries. In the United States, he was convicted in 1992 on charges including racketeering, drug smuggling, and money laundering. In France, he was convicted in 2010 for money laundering. Upon his extradition to Panama in 2011, he served sentences for various crimes committed during his rule, including murder and human rights abuses, for which he had been convicted in absentia.

When and how did Manuel Noriega die?

Manuel Noriega died on May 29, 2017, at the age of 83 in Panama City. His death followed complications from surgery for a benign brain tumor, which he had been diagnosed with in March 2017.

What was the School of the Americas?

The School of the Americas (now known as the Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation, or WHINSEC) is a U.S. Army training institution located at Fort Benning, Georgia. It has trained military personnel from various Latin American countries. While it aims to promote democratic values, it has been controversial due to some of its graduates being linked to human rights abuses and dictatorial regimes in their home countries, including Manuel Noriega.