James II and VII (born 14 October 1633 O.S., died 16 September 1701), son of King Charles I and Henrietta Maria of France, reigned as King of England and King of Ireland as James II, and King of Scotland as James VII. His ascension to the thrones occurred on 6 February 1685, following the death of his elder brother, Charles II. James's brief reign concluded dramatically with his deposition during the Glorious Revolution of 1688. He holds a unique place in British history as the last Catholic monarch to rule England, Scotland, and Ireland. His time on the throne is now primarily scrutinized for the intense struggles over religious tolerance and the contentious principles of absolutism and the divine right of kings. Significantly, his deposition marked a pivotal moment, effectively ending a century of profound political and civil strife in England by decisively confirming the primacy of the English Parliament over the Crown, a foundational shift in the nation's constitutional landscape.

The Initial Reign and Rising Tensions

Upon inheriting the crowns of England, Ireland, and Scotland, James initially enjoyed widespread support across all three kingdoms. This broad acceptance was largely rooted in the deeply entrenched principles of eligibility based on the divine right of kings and hereditary birth, which were widely embraced following the tumult of the English Civil War and the Protectorate. However, the tolerance extended to James's personal Catholicism did not, for many, translate into a willingness to accept a general re-establishment or widespread tolerance of Catholicism within the state. Both the English and Scottish Parliaments, wary of a Catholic resurgence and the potential implications for the established Church of England and Church of Scotland, resolutely refused to pass his measures aimed at relaxing penal laws against Catholics and Protestant Dissenters.

When James attempted to impose these measures, such as the Declarations of Indulgence (1687 and 1688), by royal decree, bypassing parliamentary assent, he was met with fierce opposition. This assertion of royal prerogative was widely perceived as an unconstitutional overreach, reminiscent of the Stuart monarchs' earlier attempts at absolutist rule. While often framed as a purely religious conflict, some academics have argued that the core of the opposition, and what ultimately led to his removal, was a fundamental struggle over political principles and constitutional power rather than solely religious animosity. The fear was less about his faith and more about his methods and their perceived threat to parliamentary sovereignty and established liberties, potentially leading to a French-style absolute monarchy under a Catholic king.

Crucial Events Leading to Crisis in 1688

June 1688 proved to be the turning point, as two momentous events transformed growing dissent into an irreversible crisis:

• The Birth of a Catholic Heir: On 10 June (Old Style), the birth of James's son and heir, James Francis Edward, irrevocably altered the succession. Prior to this, Protestants had hoped that James's Anglican daughter, Mary, married to the staunchly Protestant William III of Orange, would succeed him, ensuring a Protestant future for the monarchy. The arrival of a male Catholic heir raised the chilling prospect of a permanent Roman Catholic dynasty, solidifying fears that Catholicism would be re-established in Britain and leading to a concerted effort by leading Protestants to seek intervention.
• The Trial of the Seven Bishops: The second critical event was the prosecution of the Archbishop of Canterbury, William Sancroft, and six other bishops of the Church of England for seditious libel. These bishops had petitioned James against his second Declaration of Indulgence, asserting that the King's power to suspend parliamentary statutes was illegal. Their subsequent trial in Westminster Hall and their highly publicised acquittal on 30 June (Old Style) served as a devastating blow to James's political authority and legitimacy in England. The popular rejoicing over the acquittal underscored the depth of public support for the Church of England and widespread opposition to James's perceived absolutist tendencies.

The anti-Catholic riots that erupted in England and Scotland following these events underscored a widespread sentiment that only James's removal from the throne could avert a full-scale civil war, a stark memory from the mid-17th century.

The Glorious Revolution and its Aftermath

In response to the escalating crisis, a group of influential members of the English political class, known as the "Immortal Seven," formally invited William of Orange to intervene and assume the English throne. William landed with a substantial invasion force at Brixham, Devon, on 5 November 1688. Faced with widespread desertions from his own army, including key figures like John Churchill (later Duke of Marlborough) and even his own daughter Anne, James's position became untenable. He ultimately went into exile in France on 23 December, marking the effective end of his rule.

In February 1689, a special Convention Parliament, an irregular assembly convened without royal summons, famously declared that King James had "vacated" the English throne by his flight. This legal fiction avoided the politically charged act of directly deposing a monarch. The Convention then offered the crown jointly to William and Mary, who accepted. This act fundamentally established the revolutionary principle that sovereignty derived from Parliament and the consent of the people's representatives, rather than solely from birthright or divine right, a concept subsequently codified in the Bill of Rights of 1689.

Despite his exile, James was not ready to concede. He landed in Ireland on 14 March 1689, hoping to recover his kingdoms with the support of the predominantly Catholic Irish population. Concurrently, a Jacobite rising occurred in Scotland. However, in April, a Scottish Convention Parliament followed England's lead, declaring that James had "forfeited" the throne and offering it to William and Mary. James's efforts to reclaim his throne ultimately failed after his decisive defeat at the Battle of the Boyne in July 1690 (Old Style), fought near Drogheda against William's forces. Following this crushing blow, James returned to France, where he spent the remainder of his life in exile at Saint-Germain-en-Laye, under the protection and patronage of King Louis XIV, a staunch Catholic monarch and rival of England.

Historical Interpretations of James II's Reign

Historically, James II was largely portrayed by his Whig opponents as an absolutist tyrant, a dangerous monarch who threatened English liberties and the Protestant establishment by seeking to impose Catholicism and unlimited royal power. This perspective dominated historical narratives for centuries, especially after the Glorious Revolution. However, beginning in the 20th century, some historians initiated a re-evaluation of James's reign, notably praising him for his genuine advocacy of religious tolerance. They argued that his Declarations of Indulgence, while executed through unconstitutional means, genuinely aimed to grant freedom of worship not only to Catholics but also to Protestant Dissenters, who had also suffered under penal laws. This revisionist view suggested James was ahead of his time in his vision for religious liberty.

More recent scholarship has tended to adopt a more nuanced middle ground between these two contrasting views. While acknowledging James's sincere desire for religious toleration for all faiths (though Catholicism was undoubtedly his priority), contemporary historians often criticize his heavy-handed, unconstitutional methods for achieving this goal. His actions were perceived as a direct assault on the rule of law, parliamentary authority, and the established Church of England, leading to an understandable fear among his Protestant subjects that his ultimate aim was the restoration of Catholicism as the state religion and the imposition of absolute monarchy, similar to the model seen in contemporary France under Louis XIV. Thus, his reign remains a complex and pivotal period, reflecting the enduring tension between royal prerogative, religious freedom, and parliamentary power in British history.

Frequently Asked Questions About James II and the Glorious Revolution

When did James II become King of England?

James II ascended to the throne of England, Ireland, and Scotland on 6 February 1685, following the death of his elder brother, Charles II.

Why is James II significant in British history?

James II is significant primarily because he was the last Catholic monarch of England, Scotland, and Ireland. His reign directly led to the Glorious Revolution of 1688, which fundamentally reshaped the British constitution by establishing the supremacy of Parliament over the Crown and ensuring a Protestant succession.

What caused the Glorious Revolution?

The Glorious Revolution was caused by several factors, including James II's attempts to promote Catholicism and assert royal absolutism through unconstitutional means, his issuing of Declarations of Indulgence, and crucially, the birth of his Catholic son and heir, James Francis Edward, which raised fears of a permanent Catholic dynasty. The trial and acquittal of the Seven Bishops also galvanized opposition to his rule.

Who succeeded James II after his deposition?

After James II's deposition in the Glorious Revolution, his Protestant daughter Mary and her husband, William III of Orange, were invited by the Convention Parliament to rule jointly as William III and Mary II.

What was the Battle of the Boyne?

The Battle of the Boyne, fought in July 1690 in Ireland, was a decisive engagement in which James II, attempting to reclaim his thrones with French and Irish Catholic support, was defeated by the forces of William of Orange. This victory secured William's rule in Britain and Ireland and remains a highly significant event, particularly in Irish history.

Did James II genuinely advocate for religious tolerance?

Historical scholarship offers a nuanced view. While James II did genuinely advocate for religious tolerance, seeking to ease restrictions on both Catholics and Protestant Dissenters, his methods for achieving this—primarily through royal decrees that bypassed Parliament—were perceived as unconstitutional and a dangerous assertion of absolute power, leading to strong opposition.