Constantine I of Greece (b. 1868)

Constantine I (Greek: Κωνσταντίνος Αʹ, Konstantínos I; 2 August [O.S. 21 July] 1868 – 11 January 1923) was a pivotal figure in modern Greek history, serving as King of Greece in two distinct periods: from 18 March 1913 to 11 June 1917, and again from 19 December 1920 to 27 September 1922. Born into the Glücksburg dynasty, a branch of the Danish royal house, Constantine’s life and reigns were inextricably linked with profound national transformations and international conflicts that reshaped the Hellenic state.

Early Military Career and Ascensions to the Throne

Prior to his ascension, Constantine honed his military skills, eventually becoming commander-in-chief of the Hellenic Army. His early leadership faced significant challenges, notably during the unsuccessful Greco-Turkish War of 1897, often referred to as the Thirty Days' War or the Black '97. While this conflict resulted in a humiliating defeat for Greece, it provided invaluable, albeit harsh, lessons in military reform and strategy.

Constantine’s military reputation was dramatically redeemed and cemented during the highly successful Balkan Wars of 1912–1913. As the Supreme Commander of the Greek forces, he led the army to decisive victories against the Ottoman Empire and subsequently against Bulgaria. These wars were instrumental in expanding Greece’s national territory and influence. A key strategic triumph was the liberation and incorporation of Thessaloniki, Greece’s second-largest city, on October 26, 1912. Through these significant territorial gains, Greece effectively doubled its area and population, realizing a substantial part of the ‘Megali Idea’ (Great Idea) of national irredentism. Constantine’s popularity soared, earning him the epithet 'Balkan Laurel-Crowned' (Ο Βαλκανιομάχος).

Constantine succeeded to the throne of Greece on 18 March 1913, following the tragic assassination of his father, King George I, in Thessaloniki, just after the city’s liberation.

The National Schism: A Nation Divided

Constantine’s reign was soon overshadowed by a profound internal conflict known as the National Schism (Ethnikos Dichasmos), a deep political and social division that dominated Greek politics for nearly a decade. This schism primarily stemmed from his fundamental disagreement with the charismatic Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos regarding Greece’s stance during World War I.

Venizelos, advocating for Greece to join the Allied (Entente) Powers, believed this alliance was crucial for realizing further territorial aspirations, particularly in Asia Minor, and for aligning Greece with democratic principles. In contrast, Constantine, who was married to Sophia of Prussia (sister of German Kaiser Wilhelm II), favored a policy of strict neutrality, influenced by his personal ties and perhaps by a belief in the Central Powers’ military strength. This ideological clash led to a bitter power struggle. Constantine twice compelled Venizelos to resign, deepening the political crisis.

The Entente powers, frustrated by Greece’s neutrality and concerned about the strategic implications for their operations in the Eastern Mediterranean, exerted increasing pressure on the Greek monarchy. This pressure escalated to severe measures, including a naval blockade of southern Greece and direct threats to bombard Athens. Unable to resist the overwhelming foreign intervention and facing mounting internal unrest, Constantine was compelled to leave Greece on 11 June 1917. His second son, Alexander, was then installed as king, a move orchestrated by the Entente and Venizelos, who subsequently returned to power.

Return to the Throne and Final Abdication

Constantine’s exile was temporary. His return to the throne was facilitated by a confluence of unexpected events. King Alexander’s sudden death in October 1920 from a monkey bite plunged the monarchy into crisis. This was swiftly followed by a stunning defeat for Venizelos and his Liberal Party in the November 1920 legislative elections, largely due to public war-weariness and dissatisfaction with his handling of the Asia Minor Campaign. A subsequent plebiscite, held in December 1920, overwhelmingly favored Constantine's return, reflecting a widespread desire for stability and and a rejection of Venizelist policies. He was reinstated as King on 19 December 1920.

However, Constantine’s second reign was short-lived and marked by national tragedy. He resumed command during the ongoing Greco-Turkish War of 1919–1922 (also known as the Asia Minor Campaign), a conflict that aimed to secure Greek territories in Anatolia as promised by the Treaty of Sèvres. Despite initial successes, the Greek army suffered a catastrophic defeat by the resurgent Turkish nationalist forces under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. This devastating loss, culminating in the burning of Smyrna and the forced population exchange, is known in Greece as the Asia Minor Catastrophe.

The military disaster and the subsequent political fallout led to a coup d'état by disgruntled army officers. Held responsible for the national calamity, Constantine abdicated the throne for the second and final time on 27 September 1922. This time, he was succeeded by his eldest son, George II. Constantine I died in exile in Sicily, Italy, just four months later, on 11 January 1923, bringing to an end a life that profoundly shaped the course of modern Greek history.

Frequently Asked Questions about Constantine I

What was Constantine I's primary military achievement?

Constantine I’s most significant military achievement was his leadership as Supreme Commander during the successful Balkan Wars (1912–1913), which resulted in a substantial expansion of Greek territory, including the strategic city of Thessaloniki, effectively doubling the country's size and population.

Why did the National Schism occur during Constantine I's reign?

The National Schism (Ethnikos Dichasmos) was a deep political division in Greece caused by Constantine I's disagreement with Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos over Greece's entry into World War I. While Venizelos advocated for joining the Allied Powers, Constantine favored neutrality, leading to a prolonged power struggle and national crisis.

What led to Constantine I's first abdication in 1917?

Constantine I's first abdication was primarily caused by mounting pressure from the Entente (Allied) Powers during World War I, who opposed his pro-German neutrality. Following a naval blockade and threats to bombard Athens, he was compelled to leave Greece in June 1917.

How did Constantine I return to the Greek throne in 1920?

Constantine I returned to the throne in December 1920 after a series of events: the unexpected death of his son King Alexander, Prime Minister Venizelos’s electoral defeat, and an overwhelming public plebiscite favoring Constantine's restoration, reflecting widespread disillusionment with the war and a desire for stability.

What was the main reason for Constantine I's final abdication?

His final abdication in September 1922 was a direct consequence of Greece’s devastating defeat in the Greco-Turkish War of 1919–1922 (Asia Minor Campaign). Blamed for the military catastrophe by a subsequent military coup, he was forced to step down.