August Strindberg, Swedish novelist, poet, and playwright (d. 1912)

Johan August Strindberg (1849–1912), a towering figure in global literature and often hailed as the "father" of modern Swedish literature, was a remarkably prolific and multifaceted Swedish artist. Born on January 22, 1849, and passing on May 14, 1912, Strindberg's expansive career spanned four decades, during which he redefined drama, narrative, and artistic expression. His vast body of work includes more than sixty plays and over thirty works of fiction, alongside significant contributions as an essayist, poet, and painter. What truly sets Strindberg apart is his audacious willingness to draw directly from his often tumultuous personal experiences and intense psychological struggles, transforming them into art that resonates with universal human themes.

An uncompromising iconoclast and a daring experimenter, Strindberg consistently pushed the boundaries of conventional artistic forms. His dramatic repertoire alone demonstrates an astonishing range, evolving from deeply psychological naturalistic tragedies and concentrated monodramas to grand historical plays. Crucially, his later works, particularly his groundbreaking "dream-plays," provided significant anticipations of future avant-garde movements like Expressionism and Surrealism, exploring subjective reality and the subconscious long before these terms became widely recognized. From his earliest literary endeavors, Strindberg innovated in dramatic action, language, and visual composition, laying the groundwork for much of 20th-century theatre. While in Sweden he is celebrated across his diverse artistic contributions—as an essayist, painter, poet, and especially as a novelist and playwright—internationally, he is predominantly recognized for his profound impact as a playwright, largely due to the global accessibility and influence of his theatrical works.

Theatrical Breakthrough and the Rise of Naturalism

Strindberg's path to theatrical prominence was not immediate. His first significant play, the historical drama Master Olof, was controversially rejected by the Royal Theatre in 1872. This early setback underscored the radical nature of his work, which challenged established romantic ideals. It was only in 1881, when Strindberg was thirty-two, that its première at the New Theatre finally provided him with his much-anticipated theatrical breakthrough, marking a pivotal moment in Swedish drama. Concurrently, Strindberg was making waves in Swedish prose; his satirical novel, The Red Room (1879), is widely considered the first modern Swedish novel, boldly critiquing the societal hypocrisies of Stockholm's artistic and political circles.

During the late 1880s, Strindberg emerged as a leading figure in the European Naturalist movement. His seminal naturalistic dramas, including The Father (1887), Miss Julie (1888), and Creditors (1889), represent a direct response to Émile Zola’s influential manifesto "Naturalism in the Theatre" (1881) and the revolutionary example set by André Antoine's Théâtre Libre (opened 1887) in Paris. Strindberg embraced Zola's call for a theatre rooted in scientific observation, emphasizing the determining roles of heredity and environment on human behavior, and portraying life with unflinching psychological honesty, rejecting moralistic conclusions. While building upon Henrik Ibsen's accomplishments in prose problem plays, Strindberg deliberately rejected the artificial structure of the "well-made play"—a popular genre characterized by neat plots, suspenseful secrets, and contrived resolutions. Instead, he sought a more fluid, organic dramatic form that mirrored the complexities of real life.

Miss Julie stands as a quintessential example of Strindberg's naturalistic principles. In this play, characterisation profoundly replaces traditional plot as the predominant dramatic element. The focus shifts from external events to the intricate psychological struggles and primal instincts of its "vacillating, disintegrated" characters. The play starkly emphasizes the inescapable influence of genetic predisposition and social environment on their destinies, making the stage a laboratory for human behavior. Strindberg further explored and articulated his theories on naturalism in influential essays such as "On Psychic Murder" (1887), "On Modern Drama and the Modern Theatre" (1889), and most notably, in his detailed preface to Miss Julie. This preface remains one of the most significant and widely studied statements of the principles underpinning the entire Naturalist theatrical movement.

His commitment to theatrical experimentation extended to his practical efforts, leading him to model his short-lived Scandinavian Experimental Theatre (1889) in Copenhagen directly on Antoine's groundbreaking Théâtre Libre. This venture aimed to foster a new kind of theatre that prioritized psychological realism and naturalistic staging over conventional dramatic artifice.

The "Inferno Crisis" and a New Poetic Vision

The 1890s marked a profoundly transformative period in Strindberg's life. He spent significant time abroad, delving into intense scientific experiments—including alchemy, botany, and photography—and deeply immersing himself in studies of the occult and mysticism. This period culminated in a severe psychological breakdown between 1894 and 1896, famously known as his "Inferno crisis." Characterized by apparent psychotic attacks, extreme paranoia, and vivid hallucinations, this harrowing experience led to his hospitalization and eventual return to Sweden. The crisis, extensively documented in his autobiographical novel Inferno (1897), profoundly reshaped his worldview and artistic direction.

Emerging from this period of intense turmoil, Strindberg came under the profound influence of the 18th-century Swedish mystic and philosopher Emanuel Swedenborg. Swedenborg's ideas concerning the spiritual world, the correspondence between physical and spiritual realities, and the psychological nature of hell and heaven deeply resonated with Strindberg. Resolved to explore spiritual truths with the same rigorous honesty he had applied to social realities, Strindberg declared his intention to become "the Zola of the Occult"—a naturalist of the soul. This newfound spiritual focus heralded a radical shift away from strict naturalism in his dramatic writing.

His return to playwriting in 1898 brought forth a new genre: the "dream-play." Works like To Damascus (1898-1904) and The Great Highway (1909) exemplify this unique form, portraying spiritual pilgrimages through fragmented narratives and symbolic landscapes. His masterpiece in this genre, A Dream Play (1902), represents a truly radical attempt to dramatize the workings of the unconscious mind. It achieves this by abolishing conventional dramatic time and space, allowing characters to split, double, merge, and multiply, mirroring the fluid, illogical nature of dreams and subjective experience. This innovative approach made A Dream Play a crucial precursor to both Expressionism, with its focus on subjective emotional reality, and Surrealism, with its exploration of the irrational and the subconscious.

Alongside these experimental works, Strindberg also returned to the historical drama, the genre that had marked the beginning of his playwriting career, infusing it with his newfound psychological and symbolic depth. In his final years, his commitment to theatrical innovation continued with the establishment of the Intimate Theatre in Stockholm in 1907. This small-scale, experimental theatre, modeled on Max Reinhardt's pioneering Kammerspielhaus in Berlin, provided a dedicated venue for Strindberg's "chamber plays"—intimate, psychologically focused dramas such as the enigmatic The Ghost Sonata (1907). These plays often feature minimal sets and characters, emphasizing intense internal conflicts and symbolic meaning, further cementing his legacy as a relentless innovator.

Frequently Asked Questions about August Strindberg

Who was August Strindberg and what is his significance?

Johan August Strindberg (1849–1912) was a pivotal Swedish playwright, novelist, poet, and painter, widely regarded as the "father" of modern Swedish literature. His significance lies in his profound influence on modern drama, pioneering naturalism, and anticipating movements like Expressionism and Surrealism, while also exploring deeply personal and psychological themes in his extensive body of work.

What is Strindberg best known for?

Strindberg is best known internationally as a revolutionary playwright, particularly for his naturalistic dramas like Miss Julie and The Father, and his later, groundbreaking "dream-plays" such as A Dream Play. In Sweden, he is also celebrated for his significant contributions as a novelist (e.g., The Red Room), essayist, and poet.

What was the "Inferno crisis" and how did it affect Strindberg's work?

The "Inferno crisis" refers to a period of severe psychological distress and apparent psychotic attacks experienced by Strindberg between 1894 and 1896. This profound personal crisis, documented in his autobiographical novel Inferno, led to a spiritual transformation influenced by Emanuel Swedenborg, shifting his artistic focus from strict naturalism to more symbolic, mystical, and subjective forms of drama, exemplified by his "dream-plays."

What are Strindberg's "dream-plays"?

Strindberg's "dream-plays," such as A Dream Play and To Damascus, are a unique dramatic form he developed, characterized by the abolition of conventional time and space, fluid character identities, and symbolic imagery. They aim to dramatize the workings of the unconscious mind and spiritual journeys, serving as crucial precursors to Expressionist and Surrealist theatre.

How did Strindberg contribute to Naturalism in theatre?

Strindberg was a key figure in Naturalism, embracing Émile Zola's principles of scientific observation and emphasizing the role of heredity and environment in shaping characters. He pushed naturalism beyond simple realism, focusing on intense psychological conflict and rejecting the artificialities of the "well-made play," as exemplified in works like Miss Julie and articulated in its famous preface.